Engineering Physics Laboratory Manual
Engineering Physics Laboratory ManualFor B.E. I/II SemesterAs per Visvesvaraya Technological University SyllabusName of the Student :Section and Branch :Roll No. or U S N:Conceived, Prepared and Designed byK S Mahesh Lohith and V H SatheeshkumarDepartment of PhysicsSri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringJakkasandra Post, Kanakapura Taluk, Ramanagaram Dist.562 112
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringLaboratory Instructions1. The students should bring the laboratory manual, observation book,calculator etc., for each practical class.2. The students should come to the laboratory with a good preparation toconduct the experiment.3. Laboratory attendance will form a part of the internal assessment marks.4. The recording of the details of the measurements, tabulation of readingsand calculations must be first done in the observation book. The studentshould get the same acknowledged by the concerned teacher. Later theobservations have to be transferred to the manual and again it should besigned by the concerned teacher. The student must submit the record inthe following week for correction.5. Any student failing to get the results evaluated in the same laboratoryclass will lose the Internal Assessment Marks for that experiment.6. The student shall be responsible for the apparatus issued and shall takenecessary precautions in using them.7. At the end of the semester, a laboratory test will be conducted.8. Strict discipline should be maintained inside the laboratory.Engineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 2
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringNo.Experiment1Diffraction grating2Transistor characteristics3Zener diodecharacteristics4Stefan s law5Fermi energy6Series and Parallel LCRCircuits7Planck s constant8Energy gap of asemiconductor9Dielectric constant10B-H Curve11Ultrasonic Staff)Name of theSignature(Student)DateSl.Marks(Max 10)Index SheetAverageNote : If the student repeats the experiment in the regular lab session due tounsatisfactory results then the maximum marks is 8. If the student fails to attend the lab, he/she will be allowed to conduct theexperiment however no help is provided and the maximum marks will be 5.Engineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 3
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringObservations:Value of one Main Scale Divisionm Total No. of Vernier Scale DivisionsN Number of Lines per meter on Grating Least Count Grating Constant C 1 mNDirect Reading: R0 MSR (CVSD x LC) SpectralLinesSpectrometer ReadingsMSRCVDTotal ReadingR MSR (CVSD x LC)Angle of min.deviationD R R0(deg)Wavelength ofthe :Engineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 4
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of Engineering1. Diffraction GratingAim:To determine the wavelength of the prominent spectral lines of the mercury spectrumusing a diffraction grating.Apparatus: Spectrometer, spirit level, mercury lamp, grating, magnifying lens etc.Formula: The wavelength of a spectral line is given by, D 2CSin 2 λ nmλ : wavelength of the spectral line (m)N : number of lines per meter on gratingC : grating constant 1/ N (m)D : angle of minimum deviation for a spectral line (degree)n : order of the spectrum ( n 1 )Procedure:Preliminary adjustments are done for the spectrometer. The spectrometer isplaced in front of the sodium vapor lamp and its position is so adjusted that the collimator slit isilluminated with sodium light which is confirmed by viewing the slit through the collimator. Thetelescope is brought in line with the collimator. The rack and pinion arrangement of thecollimator is adjusted until clear image of the slit is seen through the telescope. The grating ismounted on the grating table using grating holder. The telescope is rotated either to the rightor to the left until the spectral lines of first order spectrum are seen. Now the grating is set tothe minimum deviation position. The vertical crosswire of the telescope is set to one of theedges of Yellow2 line. The spectrometer reading is noted. The same is repeated for Yellow1,Green, Blue and Violet lines by adjusting the crosswire for the same side edges (R). The CentralBright Maximum is focused. The vertical cross wire is set on the Central Bright Maximum andthe reading is noted (the Direct Reading R0). The readings are tabulated. The difference in thereading R and R0 for the each color gives the angle of minimum deviation (D) for thecorresponding color. The grating constant is determined given the value of number of lines permeter on the grating. The wavelength of the spectral line is calculated using the formula. D 2 C Sin 2 λ nmResult: The wavelengths of the spectral lines in the mercury spectrum are,Yellow2: m,Yellow1: m,Green : m,Blue : m,Violet1 : m.Engineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 5
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringObservations:Input CharacteristicsDependence of I B on VBE at constant VCEVBE( V)VCE 2VOutput CharacteristicsDependence of Ic on VCE at constant I BVCEI B1 25 µAI B 2 50 µA(V)IC (mA)IC (mA)I B ( µA )Calculations:Knee voltage for Base Emitter Junction VK VCurrent Amplification Factor: β Current Gain in CB Mode:α I C I C 2 I C 1 I B I B 2 I B 1β1 β Engineering Physics Laboratory Manual Page 6
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of Engineering2. Transistor CharacteristicsAim: To study the Common Emitter input and output I V characteristics of the given transistorand hence to determine the knee voltage and the transistor parameters β and α .Apparatus: Transistor, variable DC power supply, micro-ammeter, milli-ammeter, voltmeter.Formula: Current Amplification Factor β I C I BWhere I C - Change in collector current in mili ampere I B - Change in base current in micro ampereβDC current gain in CB mode α 1 βProcedure: The emitter, base and collector terminals of a transistor are identified. Themeasuring electrical Instruments are checked for good working conditions. The circuitconnections are made as shown in the diagram. For every characteristic, before the circuit isclosed, the potentiometer knobs must be set to read the minimum.Input characteristicsThe collector emitter voltage VCE is set to 2V by varying the biasing voltage VCC and is keptconstant. Then the base emitter voltage VBE is increased from zero in suitable steps by varyingthe biasing voltage VBB and corresponding base current IB is noted from the micro-ammeter.All readings are tabulated. A plot of I B verses V BE is made. The Knee voltage is measured bytaking the X-intercept of the extrapolated linear portion of the curve.Output characteristicsThe base current IB is set to 25 µ A by varying the voltage VBB .Then the collector emittervoltage VCE is varied in suitable steps from zero to 5V and the corresponding collector currentsIC are recorded from the mili-ammeter. The procedure is repeated for I B 50 µ A by adjustingVBB. The readings are tabulated. A plot of I C versus VCE is made for each value of I B . I C 1 andI C 2 are determined from the output characteristics. The current amplification factor β andcurrent gain α are calculated using the above formula.Result:Knee voltage .VCurrent Amplification Factor β Current gain in CB modeα .Engineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 7
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringObservations:Forward BiasVF in VI F mAReverse BiasV R in VI R mAFrom Graph:The Forward knee voltage (Vk) The Zener breakdown voltage ( Vz ) V. VEngineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 8
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of Engineering3. Zener Diode CharacteristicsAim: To study the I-V characteristics of a Zener diode, and hence determine the Knee voltageand Breakdown voltage.Apparatus: Zener diode, Power supply, voltmeter and ammeter.Procedure: The N-Type and P-Type sections of the given zener diode are identified. The blackband marked on the zener diode represents N-type section. The measuring electricalinstruments are checked for good working conditions. The circuit connections are made asshown in the diagram. For every characteristic, before the circuit is closed, the potentiometerknobs must be set to read minimum.Forward BiasThe P-type section and the N-type section of the zener diode are connected to the positive andnegative terminals of the battery respectively. The power supply is switched on and the appliedforward voltage Vf is increased in suitable steps from zero volt to a maximum of 1V and thecorresponding currents through the diode are noted. The readings are tabulated. A plot of Ifversus Vf is made in the first quadrant choosing a suitable scale. Knee voltage (Vk) is calculatedfrom the X-intercept is obtained by extrapolating the linear portion of the curve.Reverse BiasThe P-type section and the N-type section of the zener diode are connect to the negative andpositive terminals of the battery respectively. The power supply is switched on and the appliedreverse voltage Vr is increased in suitable steps from zero volt to a maximum of 5V and thecorresponding reverse currents (Ir) through the diode are noted. The readings are tabulated. Aplot of Ir Vs Vr is made in the third quadrant choosing a suitable scale. Breakdown voltage VB iscalculated from the X-intercept is obtained by extrapolating the linear portion of the curve.Result:The Forward knee voltage (Vk) The Zener breakdown voltage ( V z ) V. VEngineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 9
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringObservation:TrailNo.VvoltIampereR VΩIP VIwattlog10 Plog 10 R12345678910Calculation:The slope of the curve S ABBCEngineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 10
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of Engineering4. Stefan’s LawAim: To verify Stefan s law of Black-body radiation by studying the variation power dissipatedacross the bulb as a function of resistance.Apparatus: Electric bulb, rheostat, power supply, voltmeter and ammeter etc.Formula: E σ T4E is the rate at which the energy emitted from the unit surface area of a Black-Body Wm-2.σ is Stefan s constant Wm-2K-4.T is the Absolute temperature in K.Procedure: The electrical connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. The rheostatis adjusted so that a maximum value of resistance is incorporated in the circuit. The voltagesource is set to a maximum 12 V. The voltage across the bulb is varied in suitable steps byvarying the rheostat and the corresponding current is also noted. Using the data of V and I thepower (P) dissipated across the bulb and the resistance of the bulb filament (R) are determined.Log P and Log R are also determined. The readings are tabulated. A plot of Log P versus Log Ris made. The plot must be a straight line. The Slope of the curve is determined which verifiesthe Stefan s law of black- body radiation.[Note: The bulb in the experiment is analogous to a blackbody. The bulb emits radiation whenheated electrically so as a black body when heated. Thus the power dissipated across the bulb(P) is nothing but the emissive power (E). Higher the temperature (T) of the filament higher willbe the resistance resulting in high dissipation of energy. Thuscould be replaced byin theStefan s law. Thus we getP R 4 P CR 4Here is C is a constant of proportionality, taking Logarithm on both thesides we getLog P Log C 4 Log RThis is of the form Y c m X. Thus the slope of the curve obtained by plotting Log P againstLog R verifies Stefan s law of Black body radiation.]Result: The slope of the straight line is given byverified.and hence the Stefan s law isEngineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 11
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringObservation:Length of the copper wire L Diameter of the copper wire d Radius of the Copper wire r Density of copper ρ 8960 Kg / m. m.m.m3Area of cross section of copper wire A Πr 2TrialNo.Temperaturein 0 CTemperatureT (t 273) Km2Balancinglength (l ) cmResistanceR XlΩ(100 l )12345678910Slope of the curve from the graphS AB BCEf 1.36 10 151.6 x10 19ρASeVL eVEngineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 12
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of Engineering5. Fermi EnergyAim: To determine the Fermi energy of copper using meter bridge.Apparatus: Meter Bridge, copper coil, connecting wires, thermometer, galvanometer, powersupply, water bath etc.Formula:Ef 1.36 10 151.6 x10 19ρASLeVWhere, E f Fermi energy of copper (eV)ρ Density of copper (Kgm-3)A Area of cross section (m-2)L Length of copper wire (m) AB S Slope of the curve plotted R versus T BC Procedure: The circuit connections for the meter bridge are made as shown in the circuitdiagram. The Copper coil immersed in water bath is connected across the first gap of the meterbridge and a standard resistance box across the second gap. The plug key in the circuit isclosed and a suitable resistance (X) is unplugged to obtain balancing length around 50 cm.The Copper coil is uniformly heated with the help of water bath. The temperature of the Coppercoil is increased up to 95 C and then allowed to cool. As the temperature of the coil reduces,the balancing length is determined for every 4 C reduction in temperature from 90 C. Theresistance of the coil at a given temperature is determined using the formulaR XlΩ(100 l )The readings are tabulated. A plot of Resistance of the Copper coil as a function ofTemperature is made from the experimental data. The slope (S) of the curve is determined.Given the diameter (d) of the circular cross-section of the Copper wire is determined. Given thelength of the copper wire (L) and Density of Copper (ρ)the Fermi energy is calculated using theformula.Ef 1.36 10 151.6 x10 19Result: Fermi energy of the copper wire is E fEngineering Physics Laboratory ManualρASeVLeVPage 13
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringObservation:Series and Parallel L-C-R circuitsResistance R Ω; Capacitance of capacitor C µFFrequencySeriesParallelSeries Circuit:fCurrentCurrentResonance frequency f r KHz(I ) mA(I )mA.Hz1 4π f r2 CInductance L 2 HBandwidth f f 2 f1 Quality Factor Q f .Hzfrf 2 f1 .Parallel Circuit:Resonance frequency f r Inductance L .Hz1 4π f r2 C2 HEngineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 14
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of Engineering6. Series and Parallel ResonanceAim: To study the frequency response of a series and parallel LCR circuits and hence thedetermination of Coefficient of self induction of the inductor used, resonant frequency, bandwidth, and quality factor of the circuitApparatus: An audio signal generator, Resistor, capacitor, inductor and milli-ammeter.Formula: Coefficient of self Induction L 14π f r2C2HHere C is capacitance of the capacitor in F, and fr is the resonant frequency in Hz.Bandwidth f f 2 f1 HzHere f1 and f2 are the lower and upper cutoff frequencies or half power frequencies in Hz.Quality Factor Q f frf 2 f1Procedure:Series LCR circuitCircuit connections are made as shown in the figure. The AC signal generator is switched on.The current is measured as a function of frequency from 100Hz to 20 KHz in suitable steps. Thereadings are tabulated. A plot of Current against Frequency is plotted.The frequencycorresponding to maximum current (Resonant frequency) is determined from the graph. Theco-efficient of self inductance is calculated using the above formula. The Band width and Qualityfactor are determined using the values of Half power frequencies determined as shown in themodel graphs.Parallel LCR circuitCircuit connections are made as shown in the figure. The AC source is switched on. The currentis measured as a function of frequency from 100Hz to 20 KHz in suitable steps. The readingsare tabulated. A plot of Current against Frequency is plotted. The frequency corresponding tomaximum current (Resonant frequency) is determined from the graph. The co-efficient of selfinductance is calculated using the above formula.Result:Series LCR:Resonance Frequency (fr) Inductance (L) .HBandwidth ( f ) HzHzQuality Factor (Q f ) Parallel LCR:Resonance Frequency (fr) Inductance (L) .H. HzEngineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 15
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringObservation:LEDColorEnergy ofFrequency of theWavelengthTurn-On VoltageRadiationRadiation(λ in m)(VT in V)E e VTν C/λ(J)(Hz)12345AEnergyCBFrequency νThe Slope of the Curve Planck s constant h ABBCEngineering Physics Laboratory Manual. .JsPage 16
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of Engineering7. Planck’s ConstantAim: To determine the Planck s constant using light emitting diodes.Apparatus: Light Emitting Diodes of 5 different wavelengths, power supply and multimeter.Formula: E hνHere E is the energy of the photon, Jh is Planck s constant, Jsν is the frequency of the radiation s-1.Procedure: Circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. Power supply isswitched on after ensuring that the potentiometer knob is set to zero. Voltage across the firstLED is increased gradually until it just glows. The color of the light emitted and Turn-On voltage(VT) are noted.This is repeated for the other four LEDs. Energy of the light radiation iscalculated using the equation E e VT. Hereis the charge on electron 1.6 x 10-19C.frequency of the light radiation is determined using ν Cλ. Here108 ms-1) and λ is the wavelength of light emitted.Theis the velocity of light (3 xThe readings are tabulated.A plot ofenergy against frequency is made. According to Planck s Quantum theory the energy andfrequency relationship for the radiation is given by E hν. Hereis Planck s constant. Thus, theslope of the curve gives the Planck s constant.[Note: LED is P-N junction made of heavily doped transparent semiconductor.When it isforward biased, if the applied voltage is higher than the knee voltage then electrons and holesfrom N and P sections recombine in the depletion region resulting in the emission of photons.Thus LED glows with characteristic wavelength which depends on the composition and conditionof the semiconductor material used. When the applied voltage is equal to the turn on voltagethe LED just glows and the energy of the photons emitted is equal to the energy acquired bythe electron from the electric field. Thus energy of the photon can be calculated from the turnon voltage knowing the wavelength of the emitted radiation a plot of energy versus frequencycan be made. Thus the Planck s constant can be determined.]Result: The Planck s Constant is given byEngineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 17
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of EngineeringObservations:Digital MultimeterSl.No.Temperature0t CTemperature inT(kelvin)ResistanceR in( )Log R1 -1KT12345678910Boltzmann s constant K 1.38 10Eg 23JK 12.303 2 K S1.601 10 19eV . eVEngineering Physics Laboratory ManualPage 18
Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of Engineering8. Energy Gap of a SemiconductorAim: To determine the Energy gap of the semiconductor.Apparatus: Thermistor, power supply, resistor, voltmeter and milli-ammeter.Formula:Eg 2.303 2 K S1.601 10 19eVE g Energy gap of given semiconductor, eVK Boltzman s constant, 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1S Slope of the graph.Where,Procedure: The circuit connections are made as shown in the figure. An Ohmmeter isconnected across the thermistor and the resistance of the thermistor at the room temperatureis noted. Then the thermistor is immersed in water bath and heated to a temperature of 95 C.Then while cooling the resistance of the thermistor is noted from Ohmmeter for differenttemperatures starting from 90 C till 60 C for every 4 C reduction in temperature. The readingsare tabulated. A plot of Log R versus 1/T is made. Slope (S) of the curve is determined. Theenergy gap of the given semiconductor is calculated using the formula.Eg 2.303 2
Engineering Physics Laboratory Manual Page 2 Laboratory Instructions 1.The students should bring the laboratory manual, observation book, calculator etc., for each practical class. 2. The students should come to the laboratory with a good preparation to conduct the experiment. 3. Laboratory attendance will form a part of the internal assessment .
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