Sensory Characteristics Of Food Chapter 4 And Food .

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ChapterSensory characteristics of foodand food presentationWhat’s your favourite food? Hold theexcitement .  .  . what food don’t you like?Each person is different and what someconsider a delicacy, others would feel ill atthe thought of eating. Our food preferencesare influenced by various factors, includingour experiences with food and eating. Weassess food quality, whether consciouslyor unconsciously, and factors such asingredients and cooking methods canenhance the quality of meals. We selectone food over another by using informalsensory assessments with our five sensesof perception: taste, smell, feel, hearing andsight. Food presentation plays a vital role inthe acceptance of food.What was your first reaction when you saw thispicture? You might have imagined that you couldsmell the chocolate and imagined what it would tastelike. That’s your senses at work sending messagesto the brain saying, ‘Yes, I want cake.’ Presentation,preparation and processing of food should activate thesenses and increase our enjoyment of food.4In this chapter you will learn about: layout of food for visual appeal, including styling for photography andplating for service sensory characteristics of foods, including appearance, odour, taste(flavour) and texture (mouth feel) sensory assessment of a variety of foods.

quality. Our perception of flavour in a food is a product ofthe assessment of taste and aroma (smell). Other properties of food, such as temperature and texture, are also veryimportant to the perceived flavour. The best temperaturerange for flavour evaluation is 20 to 30   C, although this isnot appropriate for foods that should be served either hotor cold (such as ice-cream).TasteWhy do we select one foodover another?Imagine you are going to the local takeaway to get something for dinner. If you are well informed and health conscious, you may choose a tabouli salad, a grilled chickenburger and mineral water. But if the smell of cooking chipsand the sight of someone else’s takeaway are just too muchfor you, you may order a serving of chips, a bacon-andcheese burger and a thickshake.Our food preferences are influenced by our experienceswith food and eating, and sometimes food choices can beinfluenced by other factors: A doctor may instruct you to eat a particular food — forexample, an adolescent girl may eat more green leafy vegetables or red meat to improve the iron level in her blood. You may avoid a particular food because you are allergicto it or have an intolerance to a chemical found in a groupof foods — for example, a person with an allergy to gluten(coeliac disease) avoids wheat products. Your strong desire for a healthy body may motivate youto follow the Australian dietary guidelines and avoid anyunnecessary fat, sugar and salt.Even when these factors limit what you can eat, the finalchoice — which green vegetable, which wheat substitute,which low-fat, high-calcium dairy product — depends onthe five senses.Chilli crab, a popular dish in Singapore. Is this dish likely to cause a feeling ofheat or coolness?A taste sensation occurs when chemicals in the food stimulate taste receptors (tastebuds) in the mouth. The primarysensations of taste are sweet, salty, sour and bitter. Specificareas of the tongue can detect these tastes, as discussed onpage 27. We taste food because the tastebuds on our tonguerespond to salty, sweet, bitter and sour flavours.Sensory characteristics of foodSensory methods are used to evaluate what senses areaffected when we eat certain food. Food triggers our sensesand all these factors combine to help us make the decisionabout whether we want to eat a particular food item.FlavourThe perception of flavour, texture and visual appeal of foodsis very important in determining a food’s acceptability andFood appeals to many of our senses.Chapter 4 Sensory characteristics of food and food presentation67

In addition to the four basic tastes, umami can alsobe detected by the tastebuds. These compounds (suchas monosodium glutamate, MSG) are known as flavourenhancers. Other components in food such as tannins (as intea that has been brewed for a long time) can contribute totaste by creating a characteristic sensation. This sensationis called astringency. Some chemicals in food can createa feeling of heat or coolness in the mouth; for example,pepper mint makes the mouth feel cool.TextureTexture describes how a food actually feels in the mouth— between the lips, against the teeth, on the tongue androof of the mouth (called mouth feel) — or in the hand.This is sometimes called tactile texture. Can you recall howa crinkle-cut potato crisp feels in your mouth?A food also has visual texture. Have you ever been surprised when a wrapped salad roll from the school canteenturns out to be soft when it looked crispy?Some of the most common ways to describe the textureof foods are listed in the table below.Table 4.1Texture of foodsCHARACTERISTICFOODSHardnessSoftnessFresh stick of celeryRipe avocadoBrittlenessSmoothnessPeanut brittleChocolate barCohesivenessCrumblinessSticky caramel bunSponge cakeViscosity (thickness) high lowThick cheese sauceThin gravyElasticityChewinessGrilled round steakBaked potato skinsAromaEveryone knows that hot food has more aroma than coldfood. Steam rising off the food carries volatile aromaticsubstances that contribute to both aroma and flavour. Themore the food is heated, the stronger its aroma becomes.(Some cooks depend on the smell of cooking food to knowwhen it is ready.) The next time you use lemon-scenteddishwashing detergent, put a small drop in the palm of yourhand and smell it. Run some warm water over your hand,then smell the bubbles; despite the detergent now beingless concentrated, the smell of lemon is stronger.Sometimes food is served covered on a dish at the table.As the cover is lifted, the wonderful aroma of the foodunderneath is released. Cold foods too can have aromas.Many fresh fruits, such as strawberries, pawpaws and mangoes, have distinct aromas that deepen as the fruit ripens.68Food Technology in ActionIn recent years, technology has been used to developmachines with ‘electronic sensing’ similar to the humansenses that can detect and analyse volatile chemicals at lowlevels (see page 28).SoundAlthough not people’s first thought when selecting a food,sound does play a part in the overall enjoyment of it. Thereis no doubt that the sound of food sizzling on a platteradds to the food’s appeal. Sound can also create a negativeimpression; for example, if an apple does not crunch whenwe first bite into it, we know it is not fresh.Visual appealSeveral factors influence the visual appeal of a food, butcolour is one of the most important. The food industry usesmany colours in its products because of consumer expec tations. The consumer expects certain colours to be associated with certain flavours. For example, an orange-colouredjelly is expected to have an orange taste, cooked meat shouldlook brown, and baked bread should have a golden browncrust. The appearance of a product can also influence theacceptability; for example, scrambled eggs that are very dryand crumbly are not as appealing as scrambled eggs thatlook moist, and lumpy gravy is usually not acceptable.Let’s look at the sensory properties of milk and cheese tosummarise what we’ve learned so far.Table 4.2Sensory properties of milk and cheeseMilkAppearanceWhite liquid;colour affectedby the amount ofbutterfat (cream)FlavourBlandTextureSmooth liquidAromaFaint creamyaroma whenfreshCheeseAppearanceVaries from whiteto yellow, and toalmost blue orgreen in someblue vein typesFlavourTextureAromaVaries fromcreamcheese tostrong bluecheese andcheddarVaries frommoist, smooth,spreadable creamto firm, sliceablecheddar; some,such as brieor camembert,when fully ripe,are firm on theoutside with aviscous, almostliquid, centreVaries fromalmostundetectable,such as brie,to very strongSensory testsSensory testing is a subjective evaluation of how peopleperceive a product by using their senses. On the other hand,

the food industry also measures physical properties, suchas height and weight of food, and chemical properties, suchas pH. A full picture of the properties of a food can be determined by using a combination of these tests.Most purchased food has been processed in some way,so we will first look at the sensory tests conducted by thefood manufacturer. Then we will look at the sensory teststhat consumers can conduct in the store or at home beforeselecting a certain food.Sensory analysis is the analysis of a food’s aroma, taste,overall appearance and texture. It can be done to test thedevelopment of a new product or as a way to improve anexisting product.Sensory tests can measure: consumer preference for one food over another. Whyis the competitor’s product selling more? Does it have abetter flavour or colour? consumer acceptance or rejection of certain flavours, textures or aromas. Does the new coffee-flavoured biscuittaste the way customers expect it to taste? the difference between processing or storing procedures.Does a waxed-paper liner within the box preserve cerealtexture more than a foil-lined pouch? Did the increaseof temperature by 3   C during the canning process forchicken have any undesirable effects on colour, texture orflavour?This kind of information is important to the food manufacturer. It helps manufacturers improve the food beingdeveloped or already being produced. The more sensorycharacteristics of the food that the consumer likes, thegreater product sales will be.Various types of sensory evaluation or tests can be done,depending on what the manufacturer wants to know. Butduring any type of sensory test, certain guidelines need tobe followed to achieve useful results. Each sample’s random number should be recorded so thatthe samples are not confused.When comparing similar products (such as spaghettisauce) check the ingredients list on the packages to identify any differences. It would be more accurate to obtain acontents list designed by the manufacturer, but food companies seldom make known their recipes and processingsteps.Number 1Number 2Number 3Sample labelling that should not be used because it may indicate thatsample 1 is better than sample 3.Guidelines for conducting sensory testsGeneral organisation Each test should evaluate only one characteristic of a food, such as saltiness.No more than five different samples should be tested atany one time. The stronger the flavour of the food is, thefewer samples should be given, because the senses tirequickly and cannot detect differences as easily and accurately. Five different samples should be used only if thefoods to be tested are bland or mild in flavour.A sensory evaluation sheet should be provided so eachpanellist carries out the same tests. With some types oftest, the panellists can key their choices directly into acomputer.The product samples should be labelled in a way thatprevents the panellist from ranking them in a suggestedorder. (See the diagrams above right that demonstrateacceptable labelling.)Number 629Number 473Number 294Acceptable sample labelling — numbers are chosen at random because theymean nothing to the panellist.Panellists/tastersThe testers are called panellists or tasters. Panellists can beaverage consumers who are chosen as typical users of theproduct or who have volunteered to take part in the test. Atother times, experts who have been trained to taste for specific things, such as the taste of vinegar in a salad dressing,are used. Tasters should not have a cold because this will dull theirsenses. Testing should occur neither when the taster is hungry norwhen they have just finished a meal.Chapter 4 Sensory characteristics of food and food presentation69

Panellists should take two or three bites or sips of the foodfor taste and texture tests.Panellists should rinse their mouths with water after eachtasting so the flavour of each sample is not affected by theprevious sample.Differences between products can sometimes be describedor explained in the panellist’s own words. Some tests insistthat tasters choose one product over another, even if theycannot sense a difference.Panellists should not discuss their evaluations with otherpanellists, because this will influence their answers.Individual results should not be given, although groupresults may be shown.Hedonic scales can also use words in a series of boxes (ora numerical scale) with comments that indicate the differentlevels of satisfaction about a food. Here is an example of ahedonic scale using words.Overall, how would you rate the taste?Circle the number that best applies to you.12345Very poorPoorFairGoodVery goodPresentation of food The water for tasters shouldA word hedonic scale where panellists rate the food according to a wordassociation Descriptive tests be at room temperature,because cold water will dull the sense of taste.The food should be presented at the correct temperaturefor eating; hot foods are sampled hot and cold foods aresampled cold.The environment surrounding the testing area shouldbe controlled so that testers cannot see or smell the foodbefore they test, because this may affect the results.Panellists should be separated from one another bydividers. (See chapter 15, page 288 for more detail.)Types of sensory testsVarious marketing departments in the food industry conduct their own sensory evaluations and others use independent marketing agencies. There are many tests that canbe used for sensory evaluation. Quality testing is done toevaluate the overall characteristics of a food, and to rank aspecific quality, by comparing that food with similar foods.Hedonic scalesHedonic scales or pleasure scales are used to rate productsfor acceptability. A simple form of the hedonic scale usesfaces that indicate the amount of pleasure gained from afood. This scale can also be useful when children are testingfood.dislikelikeThe hedonic scale using face picturesDescriptive tests provide information about certain selectedsensory characteristics of food samples. A list of words thatdescribe the characteristics being assessed is presentedon a scorecard and the taster selects the most appropriatedescription based on those words (see table 4.3 below).RankingIn ranking tests, several foods of the same kind are assessedtogether and then placed in order of preference for thecharacteristic being tested. For example, suppose a foodmanufacturer wants to produce a cinnamon-flavouredapple pie for older people. A ranking test could use severalolder people as tasters. Each person could be asked to tastesamples of apple pie, each with a different amount of cinnamon flavouring. The tasters would rank the pie samplesin descending order, according to their taste appeal.Several characteristics can be assessed in ranking tests.The ranking system can also be used with descriptive wordsin the evaluation.Profiling foodProfiling is a more complex process that ranks descriptivewords to create a food profile of the product. The results arepresented on a star diagram (see page 71) that has a few ormany points, depending on the number of qualities beingtested. A star diagram can be used to compare similar products. It could also be used to compare the results of severaltasters.Table 4.3 Classification of different qualities of a banana cake using a reduced-fat butter blend instead of butter. Testers are asked tocircle a description for each quality, such as texture and appearance.Property70Description (Circle the description that you think is most appropriate.)TextureHeavy and doughy; no airholesMoist and not crumbly; smallairholesSome moisture; unevenairholesDry and crumbly; large, unevenairholesAppearanceDark brownGolden brownSpeckled brownPaleFood Technology in Action

DryCrispTastybaseGreasySoftRoughtextureKeyPlain flourWholemeal flourStar diagram for two pizza bases, one using plain flour and one using onequarter wholemeal flour. Which pizza base would you prefer based on thisprofile?Difference sensory testingDifference testing is used to test the perceived or recognised differences between products. The differences canbe in appearance, flavour, texture or aroma. At least twentypanellists are needed to ensure the results of a differencetest are worthwhile in predicting consumer preference.It is reasonably easy to identify the difference between justtwo samples. A taster has a 50 per cent chance of guessingcorrectly even without tasting! These odds are too high fora food manufacturer to work with, so other comparisonsare used to make sure the results of a sensory test indicatemore than 50 per cent accuracy.Paired comparison testIn a paired test, the samples are presented in pairs, butthere is more than one pair to taste. Imagine that sample327 (which we will shorten to P) is a reduced-fat margarine,and sample 881 (shortened to H) is an ordinary margarine.The taster will taste: sample P sample P (first pair) sample P sample H (second pair) sample H sample H (third pair).With three paired samples, if the taster recognises anydifference between the two margarines, it is more likely tobe the result of an actual taste difference rather than justchance. If the number of panellists is large enough, the statistics should indicate how noticeable the taste differencewill be to the average consumer.Triangular comparison testA triangular test is the most common of all difference sensory tests. Remember, the aim is to determine if thetasters can recognise any differences between similarfoods.Only two different samples are tested but they are presented in threes, as the name suggests. The taster is askedto identify the odd one out.They will taste: sample P sample H sample P then P H H and so on to P P H, H P H, H P P and finally H H P.Sometimes the taster will be permitted to indicate ‘noperceivable difference’ if they are absolutely unable todetect a difference.A variation of the triangular test is called the duo-triotest. In this test, one of the samples is identified for thetaster and acts as a control. The remaining two samples aretasted and compared with the control. They will either tastesimilar to or different from the control.Two-out-of-five comparison testThe two-out-of-five test is the most reliable difference testfor showing the average consumer’s ability to detect a difference in a food’s appearance and texture. Panellists tastefive samples, of which two are the same. They are asked toidentify those two samples.Using the results of the two-out-of-five test, a manufacturer can predict how 90 per cent of consumers willfeel about the food. The test is not used for testing tasteor aroma, because a large number of samples need to betested at the one time. Only appearance and texture can betested.experimentSensory test for flavour differencesSyllabus outcomeStudents learn to: evaluate the appeal of foods using sensory assessment.Contributes to the following outcome: identifies and explains the sensory characteristics of food.AimTo determine the effects of colour on flavour recognition, using atriangular comparison testEquipment12 small fruit bowls4 large bowls4 wooden spoons4 10 g unflavoured powdered gelatin4 100 g sugar4 500 mL hot (but not boiling) waterorange, red, yellow and blue food colouringsstrawberry, lemon and orange food flavouringsChapter 4 Sensory characteristics of food and food presentation71

MethodAs a class, divide into four groups.1. Each group makes a batch of the basic jelly recipe in a largebowl (using gelatin, sugar and water).2. Divide each batch among three small bowls. Add one drop ofthe colours (as shown below) to each small bowl:Group 1 — orange, in bowls numbered 1–3Group 2 — red, in bowls numbered 4–6Group 3 — yellow, in bowls numbered 7–9Group 4 — blue, in bowls numbered 10–12.3. Add two drops of orange flavouring to bowls 1, 4, 7 and 10.4. Add two drops of lemon flavouring to bowls 2, 5, 8 and 11.5. Add two drops of strawberry flavouring to bowls 3, 6, 9 and 12.6. Label each of the small bowls with a random three-digitnumber. Make a chart to record what is actually in eachbowl. If you have a computer available, you could produce aspreadsheet similar to the one below.OriginalRandombowl number mon11. After the panellists have completed the tests, record theresponses in a table of results like the one below or on acomputer OrangeYellowBlueStrawberryRedOrangeYellowBlue37. Allow the jellies to set, preferably overnight.8. Set out the dishes attractively and clearly labelled with therandom number.9. Give each panellist: a spoon (and somewhere to rinse it in hot water betweensamples, to prevent contamination) a glass of water (and somewhere to fill it when necessary) a pen four sets of samples to test (original numbers 1–3, 4–6, 7–9and 10–12) a response sheet.10. Ask the panellist to fill in the following response sheet.Samplecode numberWhat is the flavour ofthe jelly?LemonRedOrangeYellowBlueConclusions1. How often was the flavour choice correct for:a) the orange-flavoured jellyb) the lemon-flavoured jellyc) the strawberry-flavoured jelly?2. What was the overall response by panellists to the blue jelly?Why do you think this occurred?3. What reasons can you give for so few colourless food productsbeing on the market today?case studyConsumer taste testing gone wrongChristine and Ed, hungry after a long day at work,walked into the conference room of the Allgo FoodCompany for taste testing. They were the last of the20 people to sit down at the large table in the middle ofthe room. Visible in the centre of the other wise emptytable were five trays of the new dips the tasters wereto sample.The trays were labelled: (1) hot and spicy, (2) cajun,(3) curry (Ed shuddered because he hates curry of any72Food Technology in Actionkind), (4) satay and (5) Szechuan. A food technologistexplained to everyone that they were to sample eachdip in order to identify which flavour they liked bestand which texture was the most appealing. Everyonewas given a score sheet to complete. The technologistsaid he would return in 20 minutes to see how peoplewere going. In an effort to make the correct choices,Chris and Ed talked freely with the people sittingbeside them.

case study questionsCarefully consider the article on the previous page.Remember that this is not just a comprehension task;use the stimulus material along with your knowledge ofsensory testing to complete the tasks ahead.1. What kind of sensory test is being used in this case?REVIEW QUESTIONsRemember1. Name the senses triggered in the following examples.a) Sally closed her eyes and savoured the creamy, velvetychocolate.b) Amy remembers that she loves hearing the snap, crackleand pop of rice bubbles.c) Lee knew what was on the menu for tonight’s dinner assoon as he opened the front door.d) The meringue fresh out of the oven looked golden anddelicious.Apply2. What kind of information are food manufacturers looking forwhen they do sensory tests?3. What went wrong in the following sensory tests.a) The panellist had to choose which of chocolate bars 1, 2and 3 tasted the best.b) Betty just finished a big heavy meal before she took part insome taste tests.c) Adrian had a heavy dose of the flu but didn’t want to letanyone down so he went along to be a taste tester.d) Josey and Julie were doing some taste testing together andboth agreed they liked sample A best.4. Explain how different sensory tests should be conducted toensure accurate results.2. What correct testing procedures are being used?3. What factors would interfere with the reliability of thisfood test?4. What would be a more reliable test (or tests) for theAllgo Food Company to conduct?Supermarket shopping — sensoryassessmentWhen buying food, as well as considering the nutritionalcontent of the food and the money available, consumersmake critical judgements on the following characteristics: unwanted extras — garnishes, extra liquid and so on overall physical appearance — the food’s colour, generalshape, turgor and amount of fat smell or aroma anticipated taste (Remember that taste is a combinationof smell and taste.) known texture or anticipated texture — consistency, moisture content and mouth feel.Do an activity5. Working in pairs, test how well your nose detects the aromaof foods. Each student brings three different foods to school.Blindfolded, everyone guesses what the food is. After theexperiment, write a paragraph about why the aroma of food isan important factor in helping us decide whether we want toeat certain foods.Consumer sensory assessmentConsumers conduct their own sensory tests every time theymake a food choice. Although they do not have the time,money or experience to carry out elaborate sensory testsas food manufacturers do, they do make choices based onwhat their senses tell them. Consumers choose most of thefood they eat from supermarkets, but they also make foodchoices in restaurants (especially smorgasbords and take aways), cinemas, sports arenas and clubs. Food is availableat virtually every function and social occasion these days.Consumers getting exactly what they want — value for their money!Choosing fresh flesh foodsFlesh foods include meat, poultry and fish.MeatIn general, the type and age of an animal determines thequality of its meat. For example, the meat of older animalsis considered more flavoursome. Expensive cuts of meat areusually more tender than less expensive cuts, and this mayaffect the cooking time.Chapter 4 Sensory characteristics of food and food presentation73

Meat will be at its best quality if:it does not look stringy and does not have too much visibleconnective tissue or gristle, unless stewing or casserolingis planned the flesh is moist and bright red in colour, with a freshappearance. Butchers sometimes use special lights in theirwindows to make meat look a brighter red. not too much fat is visible on the outer edges the amount of bone is suitable. For example, a large boneis desirable when making soup. a ‘packed’ date is clearly visible on pre-packed meat.In general, you can judge meat to some degree by itsappearance. Beef should be bright red, firm and finelygrained. There may be marbling, as indicated by flecks offat through it. Lamb should be a light reddish-pink colourand very tender, with an even edging of firm white or pinkfat. Pork should be pale pink, firm and moist, with pearlywhite fat, and may have finely grained flesh. Veal should bevery pale pink and usually with no or very little fat. PoultryPoultry includes domestic birds such as chickens, turkeysand ducks. Chicken is one of the most popular foods andits consumption has been increasing over the past 50 years.It can be purchased fresh or frozen. Whole birds are available, as well as separate components that may be sold withor without skin and bones. Examples of different cuts ofchicken include whole or halved breasts, breast fillet, drumsticks and thighs. The method of cooking and the cookingtime are largely dependent on the bird’s age and the size ofthe piece.In general chicken can be classed as: poussin or spatchcock (aged about 6 weeks old) spring chicken (aged about 8 weeks old) roaster (under 6 months old) boilers (at least 18 months old), which usually have toughermeat and need moist methods of cooking to tenderise theflesh.When selecting fresh poultry, the following characteristicsshould be considered: plump with a fresh, clean smell no broken bones fresh-looking, unmarked (no tears, cuts or bruises), withmoist, light cream-coloured skin pink flesh with no bruising firm, plump breast and thighs.FishA large variety of good quality seafood is available in Australia today. However, seafood is a very perishable food,so take great care when buying it. When selecting prepacked seafood of any kind, check the ‘packed’ date.The main types of seafood are fish and shellfish. Thereare two types of fish: white fish, such as haddock, whiting and cod oily fish, such as herrings, sardines and salmon.74Food Technology in ActionThe freshness of fish is indicated by:bright, bulging and clear eyesbright skin or scalesred-pink gillsa body surface free of dirt and thick slimefirm flesh (leaving no imprint after being pressed)no browning or drying around the edgesan odour of sea water or seaweed (avoid if it has a strongfishy odour or smells of ammonia).There are two types of shellfish: crustaceans, such as lobster, prawns and crabs molluscs, such as oysters, scallops and mussels.When buying seafood, check that the product is packedin ice and not lying in a pool of water. Mollusc shellsshould be firm and tightly closed, or if open, should closewhen tapped gently. Feelers on crustaceans should belong; broken feelers may indicate that the product was atleast partly frozen before sale. Choosing fresh fruitsThe fruit you choose depends on whether you want to preserve it, cook it immediately or eat it raw. But as a generalrule, fruit should be: a bright colour, typical of that fruit free from cuts and bruises the correct degree of ripeness (Buy bananas slightly greenif they are to be kept for a few days, or buy a soft ripe avocado for tonight’s salad.) clean free from visible mould, decay and dark spots on the skin plump, not dehydrated.Sometimes wax is sprayed on fruit to help it keep in coldstorage and to give the fruit a shiny surface that is moreappealing to the customer.Choosing fresh vegetablesThe choice of vegetable depends on what you are going todo with it. However, vegetables should be: generally uniform in size firm to the touch an appropriate colour for the vegetable (The darkerthe colour of green or orange vegetables, the higher thevitamin and mineral content is.) free from

Baked potato skins Aroma everyone knows that hot food has more aroma than cold food. Steam rising off the food carries volatile aromatic substances that contribute to both aroma and flavour. The more the food is heated, the stronger its aroma becomes. (Some cooks depend on the smell of cooking food to know when it is ready.)

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