FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS - KopyKitab
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERSSixth EditionV. RAJARAMANHonorary ProfessorSupercomputer Education and Research CentreIndian Institute of ScienceBangaloreNEEHARIKA ADABALAChief ArchitectCybULab Private LimitedBangaloreDelhi-1100922015
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS, Sixth EditionV. Rajaraman and Neeharika Adabala 2015 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this bookmay be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission inwriting from the publisher.ISBN-978-81-203-5067-0The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.Forty-fourth Printing (Sixth Edition) January, 2015Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, PatparganjIndustrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited,New Delhi-110020.
In memory ofmy uncle Dr. P.S. Viswanathanandmy aunt Srimati Sitalakshmi—V. Rajaraman
ContentsPreface xiii1.Computer Basics.11.11.21.31.4Algorithms 2Simple Model of a Computer 4Characteristics of Computers 5Problem Solving Using Computers 61.4.1 Flowchart 71.4.2 Program 81.4.3 Working of a Computer 91.4.4 Stored Program Concept 121.4.5 Hardware and Software 12Summary 13Review Questions 132.Data Representation.152.1 Representation of Characters in Computers 162.2 Representation of Integers 192.3 Representation of Fractions 222.4 Hexadecimal Representation of Numbers 232.5 Decimal to Binary Conversion 242.6 Error Detecting Codes 27Summary 28Review Questions 293.Input/Output Units.313.1Traditional Computer Input/Output Units 323.1.1 Keyboard 32v
viContents3.1.2 Display Unit 333.1.3 Computer Mouse 343.2 Other Input Technologies 343.2.1 Touch Pad 343.2.2 Touch Screen 343.2.3 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) 353.2.4 Optical Mark Reading and Recognition (OMR) 353.2.5 Flatbed Scanner 363.2.6 Optical Character Recognizer 373.2.7 Bar Code 393.3 Computer Output Devices 403.3.1 Flat Panel Display Technology 403.3.2 E-ink Display 433.3.3 Printers 443.3.4 Inkjet Printers 453.3.5 Laser Printers 463.3.6 Dot Matrix Printers 463.3.7 Line Printers 473.3.8 Plotters 483.4 Choosing a Printer 49Summary 50Review Questions 504.Computer Memory.524.14.24.3Memory Cell 53Memory Organization 53Read Only Memory 584.3.1 Flash Memory 594.4 Serial Access Memory 604.5 Physical Devices Used to Construct Memories 624.5.1 Semiconductor Flip-flop 624.5.2 Magnetic Surface Recording 654.6 Magnetic Hard Disk 684.6.1 Solid State Disks 714.7 Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CDROM) 724.7.1 Digital Versatile Disk Read Only Memory 734.7.2 CDROM-R (Recordable CDROM or Write Once CDROM—WOROM) 744.7.3 Blu-ray Disc 754.8 Magnetic Tape Drive 754.9 Memory Hierarchy 76Summary 78Review Questions 79
Contents5.viiProcessor.825.1 Structure of Instructions 825.2 Description of a Processor 855.3 Machine Language Program 895.4 Algorithm to Simulate the Hypothetical Computer 935.5 Enhancing Hypcom 95Summary 101Review Questions 1026.Binary Arithmetic.1056.16.26.36.46.56.66.76.86.9Binary Addition 105Binary Subtraction 106Signed Numbers 107Two’s Complement Representation of Numbers 109Addition/Subtraction of Numbers in 2’s Complement Notation 110Binary Multiplication 111Binary Division 113Floating Point Representation of Numbers 115Arithmetic Operations with Normalized Floating Point Numbers 1176.9.1 Addition 1176.9.2 Subtraction 1176.9.3 Multiplication 1186.9.4 Division 118Summary 119Review Questions 1207.Logic 27.137.147.15Introduction 122Switching Circuits 123AND/OR Operations 124NOT Operation 125Boolean Functions 126Postulates 126Duality Principle 126Theorems 126Precedence of Operators 128Venn Diagram 129Truth Table 129Canonical Forms for Boolean Functions 130Logic Circuits 132Parallel and Serial Adders 135Physical Devices Used to Construct Gates 136
viiiContents7.16 Transistors 1407.17 Integrated Circuits 142Summary 145Review Questions 1468.Computer Architecture.1488.1 Interconnection of Units 1498.2 Processor to Memory Communication 1518.3 I/O Devices to Processor Communication 1538.4 Interrupt Structures 1578.5 Bus Architecture of Personal Computers 1598.6 Multiprogramming 162Summary 163Review Questions 1659.Programming Languages.1679.19.2Why Programming Language? 168Assembly Language 1689.2.1 Executing Assembly Language Program 1709.3 Higher Level Programming Languages 1719.4 Compiling A High Level Language Program 1769.4.1 Tools to Build Compilers 1799.5 Some High Level Languages 1799.6 Conclusions 187Summary 188Review Questions 18910. Operating Systems.19110.110.210.310.410.510.610.710.8Why Do We Need an Operating System? 191Batch Operating System 193Multiprogramming Operating System 196Time Sharing Operating System 203On-line and Real-Time Systems 205Other Facilities Provided by Operating Systems 206Personal Computer Operating System 208UNIX Operating System 21010.8.1 UNIX System Layers 21110.9 Microkernel-based Operating System 21310.9.1 Windows XP Operating System 21410.9.2 Windows 7 214Summary 215Review Questions 216
Contentsix11. Microcomputers.21911.1 Ideal Microcomputer 22011.2 Actual Microcomputer 22011.2.1 CPU 22111.2.2 Data Bus 22311.2.3 Address Bus 22411.2.4 Control Bus 22411.3 Memory Systems for Microcomputers 22611.4 Minimum Microcomputer Configuration 22711.4.1 Interrupts 22811.4.2 Parallel to Serial and Serial to Parallel Conversion 22911.4.3 Direct Memory Access 23011.5 Evolution of Microcomputers 23011.6 Reduced Instruction Set Computers 23111.7 Special Purpose Microprocessors 23211.7.1 Digital Signal Processors 23211.7.2 Microcontrollers 23611.8 Special Purpose Microcomputer Software 23811.9 Special Purpose Applications of Microcomputers 23911.9.1 Microcomputer as a Furnace Input Feed Controller 23911.9.2 Other Applications 24011.10 Smart Cards 24111.10.1 Memory Cards 24111.10.2 Microprocessor-based Smart Cards 24211.11 Radio Frequency Identification 243Summary 244Review Questions 24612. Computer Generations and Classification.24912.112.212.312.4First Generation of Computers 249Second Generation 250Third Generation 251Fourth Generation 25112.4.1 First Decade (1976–1985) 25112.4.2 Second Phase (1986–2000) 25212.5 Fifth Generation 25312.6 Moore’s Law 25412.7 Classification of Computers 25712.8 Distributed Computer System 26012.9 Parallel Computers 260Summary 261Review Questions 262
xContents13. Computer Networks.26513.1 Need for Computer Communication Networks 26513.2 Communication Protocols 26713.3 Local Area Networks 27013.3.1 Ethernet Local Area Network—Bus Topology 27113.3.2 Ethernet Using Star Topology 27213.3.3 Layer 2 and Layer 3 Switches 27313.4 Using Public Switched Telephone Network to Connect Computers 27513.5 Interconnecting Networks 27713.5.1 IP Address and Datagram 27713.5.2 Operation of TCP/IP 27813.5.3 Packet Switching with TCP/IP 28013.5.4 Internet and Intranet 28113.6 Internet and the World Wide Web 28113.7 Internet Security 28313.7.1 Extranets and Virtual Private Networks 28413.8 The Future of Internet Technology 285Summary 286Review Questions 28914. Voice and Data Communications.29214.1 Characteristics of Communication Channels 29314.2 Allocation of Communication Channel 29714.2.1 Space Division Multiplexing 29714.2.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing 29714.2.3 Time Division Multiplexing 29914.3 Physical Communication Media 30014.3.1 Bounded Media 30014.3.2 Unbounded Media 30314.4 Public Switched Telephone Networks 30814.4.1 Digital Communication on the Local Loop with Modems 30914.4.2 Half Duplex and Full Duplex Transmission 31214.4.3 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission 31214.4.4 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines 31314.5 Cable Modems 31514.6 Multiplexing Techniques in Wireless Communication 31614.7 Modulation Methods Used in Wireless Communication 31714.8 Cellular Communication Systems 31714.8.1 Architecture of GSM Cellular Mobile Phone System 31814.8.2 Basics of Frequency Management in GSM 32114.8.3 Other Services Available in GSM 32214.9 Basics of Spread Spectrum Technology 32214.9.1 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum 32314.9.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum 324
Contentsxi14.10 Code Division Multiple Access Telephone System 32514.11 Wireless LAN 32614.12 Personal Area Network—Bluetooth 32814.13 WiMAX 32814.14 Mobile Communication Among Portable Computers 329Summary 330Review Questions 33315. Advanced Input/Output Interfaces.33715.115.215.315.4Graphical User Interface 337Vector Graphics 338Raster Graphics 339Accelerated Graphics with GPU 34015.4.1 Rendering Pipeline 34015.4.2 Programmable Rendering Pipeline 34115.5 Stereo Display Units 34215.6 Other Visual Displays 34315.6.1 Head Mounted Displays 34415.6.2 3D Projection Systems 34415.7 Input Devices for Interaction 34515.7.1 Accelerometers 34515.7.2 Gesture Recognition 34615.7.3 Digital Cameras with Computer Vision Technologies 34615.8 Speech and Audio Interface 34715.9 Tactile Interfaces 34815.9.1 Haptic Technology 34815.10 Other Emerging Technologies 350Summary 351Review Questions 35316. Multimedia Data Acquisition and Processing.35416.1 Image Acquisition and Storage 35516.1.1 Flatbed Scanner 35516.1.2 Acquiring Monochrome Pictures 35616.1.3 Acquiring Colour Pictures 35616.2 Storage Formats for Pictures 35716.3 Image Acquisition with a Digital Camera 36016.4 Capturing a Moving Image with a Video Camera 36216.5 Compression of Video Data 36216.6 MPEG Compression Standard 36416.7 Acquiring and Storing Audio Signals 36416.8 Compression of Audio Signals 366
xiiContents16.9 Audio Signal Processing 36616.9.1 Transforming Audio Signals 36616.9.2 Generation of Audio Signals 36716.9.3 Generation of Speech from Text 36816.9.4 Recognition of Audio Signals 369Summary 370Review Questions 37217. Emerging Computing Environments.37517.1 Current Computing Scenario 37617.2 Peer to Peer Computing 37717.3 Grid Computing 37817.3.1 Enterprise Grid 38117.4 Cloud Computing 38217.4.1 Cloud Types 38317.4.2 Cloud Services 38317.4.3 Advantages of Cloud Computing 38417.4.4 Risks in Using Cloud Computing 38417.4.5 Applications Appropriate for Cloud Computing 38517.5 Conclusions 386Summary 387Review 421
PrefaceA student must understand how a computer functions in addition to knowing how to program it.The main objective of this book is to explain to a beginner how a computer works. Computersalesmen and advertisers have a tendency of using numerous obscure technical terms to impresscustomers. Very often such jargon overwhelms many managers and computer users because theydo not understand them; hence, another objective of this book is to explain in a simple languagewhat many of these terms really mean. Hardware and software components of a computer areimportant for its functioning and, thus, both these aspects are explained in this book.This book is intended as a text for a course on Fundamentals of Computers to be taughtconcurrently with courses on programming. It would, therefore, be useful for the first coursein computers taught in undergraduate and postgraduate courses in computer applications (BCAand MCA). Rapid advances in computer technology have made it imperative for all engineersto understand the hardware features of computers besides knowing how to program them in ahigh level language. A core course is being introduced in undergraduate engineering curriculaon fundamentals of computers, and this book would be appropriate for this course. In view ofthe extensive use of computers in business and industry, students in schools of managementrequire a course on computers, and this book would be appropriate for such a course. Thereis a trend to introduce computer science as a subject in B.Sc. courses; again, this book can beused as a text in this course.Besides its use as a text, this book would provide managers, engineers, and scientists abasic introduction to the hardware and software of computers. This knowledge is essential toappreciate the power and deficiencies of computers and to select appropriate applications andhardware.This book has evolved from a set of notes the first author used in various courses, whichhave been thoroughly class-tested. These notes have been used for concurrent reading in shortintensive programming courses, in computer appreciation courses for managers and engineers,and in undergraduate programmes for engineers.The first five editions of this book received excellent response from the readers andwere highly acclaimed. A number of suggestions were also received from the readers. Thexiii
xivPrefacesixth edition has been written by extensively revising the fifth edition along with a co-author.The basic structure of the book has been retained. All chapters were thoroughly reviewed.A number of chapters were rewritten. In particular, Chapter 15 has been rewritten to reflectadvances in input/output to computers, including brain computer interface. A new chapter onemerging computing environments including cloud computing has been added to accommodatethe changes that have taken place in computer technology in recent times.Chapter 1 explains the concept of computer algorithms, computer structure and programminglanguages. Chapter 2 describes how various types of data are represented and stored in acomputer. Chapter 3 describes various devices used to input data and programs to computersand the devices used to write the results of computation. Chapter 4 analyzes the propertiesof storage devices used to fabricate computer memories. It also describes the structure ofdifferent types of memories. In Chapter 5, the logical structure of a processor (also knownas the Central Processing Unit) of a computer is presented. A small hypothetical computer isused to explain the basic ideas in the design of processors. Chapter 6 discusses how binaryarithmetic operations are carried out by a computer. Chapter 7 presents Boolean algebra andits applications in the design of arithmetic and logic circuits. Chapter 8 covers how I-O units,the memory and the processor are interconnected and the methods used to reduce the effectsof speed mismatch between these units.Chapters 9 and 10 are mainly concerned with the software of computers. Chapter 9introduces the need for high level languages for computers and briefly describes a numberof popular programming languages. Chapter 10 presents the important concept of operatingsystems. It explains how various units are coordinated and their functioning overlapped, usingsoftware aids. This chapter has been extensively revised.Chapter 11 deals with microcomputers. In view of the rapid growth of microcomputerapplications, I have devoted a full chapter to this topic and explained the logical structure ofmicroprocessors, the architecture of microcomputers, and their applications. Recently, smartcards and radio frequency identification tags are being extensively used. Both these devicesuse embedded microprocessors. Thus, a new section has been introduced to describe these.Chapter 12 explains how computers are classified as tablet, laptop (or notebook) computers,PCs, servers, mainframes, distributed and parallel computers, and as first, second, third, andfourth generation machines.The last four chapters are recent topics not usually found in most ‘first books’ oncomputers. Chapter 13 describes Computer Networks. It includes Local Area Networks (LANs),Internetworking using TCP/IP protocol, Intranets and Virtual Private Networks. Chapter 14deals with analog and digital communications. In this chapter, various physical media used incomputer communications are introduced. Specifically both wired and wireless communicationsare discussed. As wireless communications is becoming important, considerable attention hasbeen devoted to spread spectrum and cellular communications. We have also described newwireless systems such as WiMAX and WiGig. Chapter 15 is new and introduces recent advancesin input/output of computers. We describe graphical user interfaces (GUI) and how the extracomputational load resulting from graphics is supported by use of Graphics Processing Units(GPUs). We illustrate the recent trends towards more natural/intuitive interfaces to computersby describing 3D displays, multi-touch, gesture, and speech interaction systems. We also
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FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS Sixth Edition V. RAJARAMAN Honorary Professor Supercomputer Education and Research Centre Indian Institute of Science Bangalore NEEHARIKA ADABALA Chief Architect CybULab Private Limited Bangalore Delhi-110092 2015. FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS, Sixth Edition
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