How Did They Build The Great Pyramid?— An Architect S Proposal

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PapersHow did they build the Great Pyramid?—an architect’s proposalTrevor HarrisMany people are fascinated by the pyramids of Egypt. Why were they built? But more challenging—how did theydo it? In particular with the Great Pyramid—how did they construct it to the enormous height with such accuracyand precision? By examining the pyramid through modern architectural eyes, assuming the builders had accessto a reasonable level of technological skills, a certain solution suggests itself. A detailed analysis shows that sucha solution is feasible and constructable, and even referred to within some ancient records.Most theories for the building of the Great Pyramid(figure 1) are derived from an evolutionary viewof human history whereby primitive humans developedengineering and building construction by trial and errorover many millennia. Consequently, explanations andillustrations of pyramid construction often show a largearmy of grunting workers hauling huge blocks of stone uplarge ramps.A different picture emerges when we assume biblicalhistory. From this perspective the descendants of Noahformed the basis for all the early civilizations. Theiradvanced architectural forms and technology show theintelligence of these people. Examples can be found in theMiddle East, China and the Americas.These descendents inherited sophisticated engineeringskills, obviously sufficiently developed in the building ofthe Ark that survived the Flood, and the Tower of Babelafterward (Genesis 6–9; 11). For example Mizraim, whowas a grandson of Noah, was the patriarch of a tribethat settled in Egypt. In Egypt the earliest structures doexhibit experimentation, the development of craft skillsand evidence of metallurgical processes. An iron plate(confirmed by chemical analysis in 1989) was foundembedded in the Great Pyramid in 1836 by an assistant ofexplorer Colonel Vyse.1The Great Pyramid is the only one of the Seven Wondersof the Ancient World that has survived to this day. It is themost measured and surveyed building in the world and hasgenerated the most debate about its original measurementsand their meaning. No evidence has been found of Egyptianhieroglyphs, idols or coffin remains in the structure.However there are some graffiti examples in some partsof the upper chambers. It is accepted by most to have beenbuilt in the 4th Dynasty reign of Pharaoh Khufu.2 Howeverthere is debate about the dating of this dynasty and whetherhe is the main instigator.The height and volumeThe Great Pyramid currently measures 138 m highwhich is the equivalent of a 46 storey building. It was thetallest structure that humans had erected until the buildingof the Lincoln Cathedral spire (UK) at 160 m in ad 1311(over 3,500 years later).It is just under half the height of the Eiffel Tower (300m to its roof) built in 1888. It is close to half the heightof Australia’s 3 highest structures: Sydney’s Centre-pointTower (305 m), Melbourne’s Eureka Tower (297 m) andGold Coast Q1 building (275 m). However, it would takeexactly 6 Great Pyramids to reach the top of the currenttallest building, Burj Khalifa (Dubai Tower), in the MiddleEast, which is 828 m high and was built in 2008.Most commentators acknowledge that the GreatPyramid of Giza in Egypt, also called the Pyramid ofKhufu (or Cheops), demonstrates a massive increase insophistication of design and complexity of construction.It is also one of the most accurately aligned structures totrue polar north. The reason for this earlier complexity hasbeen difficult to explain from the traditional evolutionaryperspective.The Great Pyramid is a high point in constructiontechniques. The Pyramid of Khafre adjacent, built later, is aclose but very poor copy, and most subsequent pyramids areeven more inferior. Thus pyramid construction degeneratedwith time rather than improved, pointing to a devolution ofdesign and construction techniques.60Photo by Nina Aldin Thune courtesy of wikimedia.orgThe Great PyramidFigure 1. The Great Pyramid of Giza, also called the Pyramid ofKhufu or the Pyramid of Cheops, is the only remaining wonder ofthe Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.JOURNAL OF CREATION 24(3) 2010

PapersThe volume of the Pyramid wouldfill the Empire State Building in NewYork 2.5 times.Engineering requirements inconstructionRather than speculating on howsuch a great structure could have beenbuilt using primitive techniques, it isproposed how an intelligent ancientarchitect could design and build thestructure with the technology of that Figure 2. An example of a single stage ramp to the top of the pyramid, an unlikely scenario.era. There are a number of technical This is in the Pharaonic Village in Cairo. (Photo: Egyptologist David Down)requirements for any proposal forGreat Pyramidthe building of the Great Pyramid.These include: A regular and fast rate for the delivery and placementof the estimated 2,300,000 stone blocks. The acceptedtime frame of construction is between 20–30 years.Proposed rampSome have proposed shorter periods with a requireddelivery rate of 3 stones per minute. The 203 courses of masonry must be accurately leveledExistingquarryand the level must be maintained to accurate tolerancesSphinxthrough the entire construction.Pyramid ofupKhafre The slope angles of each corner of the pyramid mustbe accurately measured and the slope must beaccurately maintained. Any deviations in slope wouldhave a catastrophic effect as the level of the pyramidPyramid ofNilerose higher.Menkaure7 kmNORTH The slope face angles on each of the four sides neededto be accurately checked and maintained. This would0100 200 300 400 500have been critical for the placement of the limestoneMetres scalecasing stones that covered each side. There is debate about the materials used for the stoneFigure 3. Site plan of the Giza Plateau showing the Great Pyramid,blocks. Some advance the idea that they were castthe Pyramid of Khafre and the Sphinx. The proposed southernconstruction ramp to the 64-metre level is shown extending from‘polymer’ concrete (in situ). The conventionalthe quarry to the Great Pyramid. (After Romer, ref. 2, p. 14)understanding is quarried stone. The casing stones andthe chamber-forming blocks are large quarried stones.also be massive and not very feasible. Therefore, I haveEither way, they represent large volumes of materialdiscounted the idea of a ramp to the full height.and these large stone blocks had to be lifted to greatThe idea of an internal spiral tunnel by French architectheights.J.P. Houdin and supported by archaeologist Bob Brier isGetting to the topanother proposal aimed at getting a ramp to the top.3 Thissuggestion is impractical for many reasons, including theMany different proposals have been suggested to reachstructural requirements of the pyramid. It would greatlythe height required. Most of these involve complicatedweaken the structural integrity of the pyramid due to theramps and do not meet the requirements listed above asmassive forces resulting from forming the shape. It wouldthey cover the critical sight survey lines.not be practical from a logistical point of view, in that itA full ramp to the top at 138 m has a certain appeal,would be difficult to haul 40- to 60-tonne stone blocksand such a ramp is illustrated in a model in the Egyptianup through such a confined passage. The rate of stonePharoanic Museum (figure 2). However, a ramp to the fulldelivery would be too slow with only one path for materialsheight would be huge in scale and impractical. It wouldmovement.require much more material than the pyramid itself andI propose that a two stage approach to the construction,involve an enormous effort to build and dismantle. It couldthatmeets the engineering requirements listed above,not be built with sand or gravel as this would spread undersuccessfully explains how they got to the top. The firstits own weight. An engineered ramp of mudbrick wouldJOURNAL OF CREATION 24(3) 201061

Papersstage involves a construction ramp to a critical levelpart way up. The second stage involves forming ‘tieredplatforms’ in the structure to enable materials to be liftedfor the upper levels.Southern construction ramp—stage 1Maintaining a continual rate of delivery of people andmaterials is a challenge. Given the logistics, a four lanecarriageway would be ideal to ensure this. More lanes couldbe provided at the lower levels.This structure could have been constructed as a ‘dualramp’, which would permit a continuous delivery ofmaterials to the pyramid even as the ramp was being builtup. The design allows delivery of materials utilizing oneside of the ramp while the other side of the ramp was beingraised—then vice versa. Thus a continual flow of materialsand workers can occur while the ramp structure is raisedin tandem.The building stones could be mounted on metal sledsat the quarry and then carted by animals the whole distanceup the ramp, onto the stone platform and close to therequired position.This ramp could be made with materials readilyavailable in the area. Mud bricks made on the banks of theNile adjacent would be the bulk of the material. On the sidesof the ramp they could be chambered (sloped) at a nominal60 degrees to give stability. The volume as proposed isapproximately 760,000 m3.Stage 164 m138 m74 mStage 2It is proposed that the main construction ramp was onthe south side of the pyramid (figure 3). The reasons forthis include:1. A ramp on the southern side would provide the shortestdistance from the quarry to the Pyramid site, a keyfactor for the efficient delivery of such an enormousquantity of stone material. The source of most of thebuilding stones is the large quarry 500 m to the south(figure 3).2. Some evidence has been found of remains of a southernramp.43. The eastern side has remains of a ramp but this wasprobably for the delivery of the casing stones (asdiscussed later). It is also the location side of what maybe setout lines for dimensional checking as proposedby John Romer.54. The northern side is discountedbecause it has the only entranceWorking platform all levelsHRTway into the structure.NOTiers with liftersEngineering restraints suggest20%the main ramp reached only part wayVol.up the pyramid. It is proposed that theHolding and ammenities platformramp was only to the 64-metre level80%approximately, which is the levelVol.Dual ramp for continual useneeded to raise the heaviest stonesthat were placed above the King’sChamber (approximately 60 tonnes).From an engineering perspective, aramp built to this level is practicalAnimals drag up stones on sledsButtress ramp to 64-m leveland possible using simple constructionmaterials and techniques such as Figure 4. Concept of the dual construction ramp for the Great Pyramid to its maximumbattered (splayed) mud brick walls. ramp height of 64 m.This technique has been found at otherNo pyramidionpyramid sites but on a lesser scale.at apex100% Vol.The southern ramp would need toTiers not to scalewith stone liftersextend 512 m from the quarry to thepyramid, which means the maximumShaftsWork platformsLargestgradient reached at the 64-metre levelstones80% Vol.1:8Final rampwould only be of 1:8 (64 m in 512 m,Grand galleryEntryfigure 4). This gradient is quiteKings chamberacceptable for people and animals toQueens chamberPassagesclimb. Many modern-day car rampsService ramp toare constructed to this gradient.northern entranceSOUTHWhat kind of ramp?A ramp that allows for continualadjustment in height for each levelis required as the work proceeds.62Subterranean chamber230mFigure 5. North-south cross-section of the pyramid illustrating the two-stage constructionmethod with construction ramp to the 64-metre level and stone lifters above. Also shownare some of the internal features of the pyramid, including the subterranean passageway.JOURNAL OF CREATION 24(3) 2010

PapersA working platformAny large building site needs a large working area.The delivery of materials and amenities for workers mustbe near the works in progress. With the ramp proposal itallows a very large flat area at the top at each stage to givethis function (figure 5).As it rises, this platform narrows so it is important toestablish the required platform for the second stage of theproposal, which I will discuss later. At 64 m, a workingplatform of 24 m by 50 m is possible.Animals do most of the workThis is a key factor in understanding the logic of theproposal. The proposed 64-metre level represents the pointbelow which 80% of the volume of the pyramid had beenplaced—only 20% of the volume of the pyramid is aboveit. This statistic was pointed out by John Romer and is animportant factor.6 This means that the bulk of the building’sstone can be carted close to the placement area by animals.Humans are needed only for the final positioning.Oxen can haul the massive 60-tonne stones that arefound above the King’s chamber. No grunting, heavingEgyptians would be needed, as shown in many cartoons.The animals can also deliver all the stones for the remainingheight to this last working platform at the 64-metre level.The casing stonesAn estimated 144,000 limestone casing stones up to2.4 m thick covered the entire surface of the Great Pyramidto form a continuous smooth polished surface. These casingstones are so precise in placement and jointing that nopenetration of the surface was made for 3,000 years. Thefirst recorded modern entry was Al Mamun, the Cairo Caliphwho tunneled an entry in ad 832.The Greek historianHerodotus wrote of alarge ramp on the eastside. Indeed evidence hasBbeen found for the causeway on the eastern side. However,I suggest that this east-side ramp was not the main rampfor building the Pyramid. It is more likely that this rampwas at the end of the delivery road from the harbour to thePyramid site for the casing stones. These are proven to havecome from the other side of the Nile.7 At a later time theeast-side ramp may have been utilized as a processionalramp—hence the remains. Herodotus says that this rampwas 10 years in the making which seems a long time forsuch a modest structure. Ten years would be a better timeframe for building a southern ramp for the main constructionas proposed.Building the coursesThe evidence of the few casing stones found at thebase of the pyramid is that these stones provided a polishedaccurate slope face that dovetailed into the course behind.Another subtle feature is that these stones were laid with aslight indent to the face resulting in a ‘crease’—called theapothem—at the centre of each face (figure 6). This factwas discovered by an early aerial photograph by Englishairman P. Groves in 1940 where shadows picked up thesubtle indentation.8This deviation in the stonework makes sense as itenables accurate checking by sight lines from corner tocorner for each course.The perimeter casing stone course was also rigid with athin bed of mortar found to join each stone. This course wasaccurately aligned to control the geometry of the shape. Thestones were leveled very accurately to the horizontal whichthen provided the gauge for the infill stonework behind.With this technique, once the perimeter course is in placeit acts as a safety barrier and datum allowing for the rapidinfill of the inner core. Work can also be done in differentparts of the course level at the same time.Another factor with working on one course at a time isthat portable shade structures can be provided at any part ofVertical tiers with lifters for stone delivery74 mAStage 214 mFigure 6. The core masonry ofJOURNAL OF CREATION 24(3) 2010Top working platform at 64 metresDual ramp for continual use64 mStage 1The Great Pyramid has a distincthollowing, as much as 94 cm (37inches) on the north face. It is notnormally observable and can onlybe seen when special lines of sightare taken. In the above illustration(after Tompkins, ref. 7, p. 110),the hollowing of the core masonryis greatly exaggerated to show theeffect. A. Pyramid base as actuallybuilt. B. Base of core masonry.Mudbrick battered wallsStone central inner wallFigure 7. Southern elevation of the Great Pyramid showing the construction ramp with mud brickbattered walls at its maximum height.63

PapersTiers to the top—stage 21.6S H M the building site enabling work to progress in hot conditionsfor the whole of the year.A 1.20.8Above the 64-metre level a different approach wouldbe required, as the size and slope of the ramp would have0.4reached its maximum practicable level (figure 7). The0remaining 20% of the blocks for the pyramid would now0255075100125150175200have to be placed in a steep structure for the rest of the heightC of 74 m (25 stories). It is important to note that above thisFigure 8. Variation of the block thickness for each layer of thelevel the stones become smaller and lighter (figure 8), whichGreat Pyramid from its base to its present summit (after Romer,means they could be handled by a different constructionref. 2, p. 367).technique.The existing stepped courses of the Pyramid have ledgesaveraging about 600 mm in width and a height about 700mm, resulting in an incline of about 51 degrees, which isNominal2.8–3.0 mvery unworkable. Even with staggered scaffolding this canHightbe dangerous.Work platformTherefore, it is proposed that on the southern side only,they created vertical ‘tiers’ with the core masonry withVariable coursesplatforms of nominal dimensions 2.4 m wide and 2.8 m highof masonary(figure 9). This is a single-storey height that makes it easyWork platformfor lifting blocks from one level to the next. It provides asafe working area for frames and scaffolds. On that levelworkers can have amenities, such as toilets, water supplyand shade structures.Lifter devices would be used on each of these levelNominal 2.4 mtiers to allow continual delivery of the stones. These liftersFigure 9. Forming the vertical tiers, central south side only.could be simple wooden or metal devices using the fulcrumand lever principle (figure 10). A number of prototypeshave been developed to demonstrate this. Humanoperators can lift large stones above a small height.Casing stonesThe lifting is only required for each single storeyheight which makes it safe. The stones couldScaffold framebe packed in metal or timber frames for ease ofhandling. They would be lifted individually andShade rooftransferred from lifter to lifter until they reached theCorbel infillrequired level. When they reached their destinationworking level they would be placed on adjustablemetal rails and glided to the required position.These tiers could be designed to have a numberInfillof vertical lifter hoists in a row allowing for multipleTiersrates of delivery for stone. From a technical pointof view these tiers could be corbelled to allow theinfill stone to be bonded back into the structure onck nsBlo.5 tocompletion.92Core stonesFinishing from the top downI believe the current height of the pyramid isthe same as the original, and a pyramidion (pointedcapstone) was not constructed. In stage two, thepyramid structure is formed as at the lower levelswith the casing stones first and the infill behind,but the vertical tiers in the centre of the southernside prevent the completion of all these courses.64Lifting devices, levers or pulleysFigure 10. Lifting devices with the tiered layers.JOURNAL OF CREATION 24(3) 2010

PapersCasing stonesinsertedFinal polishedstone faceTiersInfill fromtop downVariable course tiersFigure 11. Infill of the tiers and placement of the casing stonesfrom the top down.However, from the top it is possible to infill these coursesfrom the top down (figure 11).Once the top has been reached, the southern side tierscan be in-filled from the top down (figure 10). This requiresmatching courses of masonry and the casing stones placedlevel by level. No section is more than the nominal singlestorey (2.8m) in height, which is a safe working height.A simple method of corbelling often used in masonrywork enables the courses to be bon

embedded in the Great Pyramid in 1836 by an assistant of explorer Colonel Vyse.1 The Great Pyramid Most commentators acknowledge that the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, also called the Pyramid of Khufu (or Cheops), demonstrates a massive increase in sophistication of design and complexity of construction.

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