International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2018ISSN 2250-3153197The Environmental and Social Impacts of OilExploration and Production on Melut basin of SouthSudan.LORO Emmanuel Ladu Legge*, Lu Zhibo**UN Environment-Tongji Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, TongjiUniversity, Shanghai 200092 P.R ChinaDOI: .29322/IJSRP.8.10.2018.p8226Abstract- In view of the environmental impacts of crude Oilexploration and production, it has caused more adverse impactthan its beneficial desired end in the oil-bearing enclaves ofMelut basin in the Republic of South Sudan. Crude oilexploitation has had and continues to have a deleterious impacton the environment in the region adversely impacting on thepeople inhabiting the area ever since its discovery in the 1970s.This review paper dwells much on the analysis of secondarysource data such as gray literature, journals and primary data(field reports) on the environmental and social impacts of oilexploration and production on Melut basin. The Melut basinconsists of a diverse ecosystem of savannah grassland, Macharwetland, and the Sudd wetland one of the Ramser sites in theheart of the African continent but due to oil pollution the area isnow characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forestdestruction and biodiversity loss, in general, the area is anecological wasteland as accidental and unmonitored oil spillstake place. This affects the livelihood of the indigenous peoplewho depend on the ecosystem services for survival leading toincreased poverty and displacement of people. This review paperhas identified some of the factors that have led to the fluctuationin oil production level in South Sudan as follows; (1) thesecession of the South Sudan from Sudan in 2011, (2) dispute oftransit fee with Sudan government on transfer tariffs of crudeleading to a temporal halt of the flow of the crude oil in 2012through the pipeline since the country depends on Sudan for theexports of its oil products to the port terminal in the Red Sea, (3)civil war (armed conflicts) between the ruling government andrebel factions that rebel right after the secession of the countryand the 2013 crisis. (4) The shutdown of the Thar Jath oilprocession plant and (5) the maturity of other oil wells and highlevel produced water than crude oil (6) accidental spills due tomalfunctioning of the valves and malicious sabotage byindividuals who against social welfare of the people. The reviewalso shows that much of the oil spills occurring in the study areahas limited/ to none reporting making it hard for quantification ofthe oil spills/lost, the pollution levels on land, water bodies andbiodiversity are alarming. Here we also show that as much as oilis the desired product, during the production stage, a goodamount of gas and produce water is produced as by-products inthe due caused. South Sudan oil production is characterized byhigh level of produce water with limited treatment facility and apotential energy source (natural gas) is wasted or flared due limited or no infrastructure for tapping and using this potentialenergy. The oil industry in this region has contributed immenselyto the economic growth and development of the country in therecent past which is a fact that cannot be ruled out as the countryheavily dependent upon but unsustainable exploration andproduction activities have severely threaten the ecosystemwellbeing of the region. We suggest that the Republic of SouthSudan should employ the best technology to tap the product gasand to have a monitoring mechanism to detect oil spills andsound spills management system. Additionally, it is also evidentthat mud pits/ borrow pits have become a source and a habitat fordisease-causing pathogens and pollution of water bodies. Wealso recommend that a combined technology of high efficienthalophile oil-degrading microorganisms in biological treatmentand membranes (SBR) biological treatment systems can be usedfor effective management of produced water since skimming andphytoremediation ponds/ lagoon are used for treatment which areless effective given the current produce water level and theacidity of the crude in the Melut basin.Index Terms- Environmental and Social Impact, oil Explorationand Production, Paloich, Melut basin, South SudanI. INTRODUCTIONT1.1. Background:he exploration and production of oil and gas is a majorindustrial development and is regarded as a blessing. The sectoris a major source of jobs and revenue for many oil producingeconomies globally. In August 1859, Colonel Edwin Drakedrilled 70 feet well in Titusville, Pennsylvania, and discoveredoil. By the end of 1800’s a number of wells were drilled inPennsylvania, Kentucky, and California. The birth of the modernoil industry is credited to the discovery of oil at spindle top in1901 atop a salt dome near Beaumont Texas1. Oil spillage is aglobal issue that has been occurring since the discovery of crudeoil which was part of the industrial revolution. Oil explorationwas started in the then Sudan in 1959 but no oil, however, wasfound by the Italian oil company Agip after getting an offshoreconcession in the Red Sea area North - East from the Sudangovernment. It carried out seismic surveys and drilled six wells.Following Agip, western oil companies – Oceanic Oil Company,www.ijsrp.org
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2018ISSN 2250-3153Total, Texas Eastern, Union Texas and Chevron – moved in tosearch, but to no avail and most companies relinquished theirconcessions2.In 1974 Chevron took a 25% interest from Shell (Sudan)and was granted permission to search for oil. In 1978 Chevronfound the first oil in the Muglad Basin which stretches deeplyinto Western Upper Nile in the South. In 1981 it made a second,more moderate find in the predominantly Dinka area Adar Yalein Melut Basin, east of the White Nile3-5. Four exploratory wellsshowed flow rates of 1500 and more barrels a day. Chevronbelieved there was a potential all the way south to Malakal andeast to the Ethiopian border. In 1982 Chevron made a third,much large discovery at Heglig, 70 km north of the Unity field,home of the Nuer and began to develop Unity and Hegligoilfields.In 1984 Chevron suspended operations and removedpersonnel, after the SPLM/A attack Chevron’s base at Rub Kona,near Bentiu, killing three expatriate workers resulting into thesplitting of Chevron’s concessions into smaller units by theKhartoum government4, 6. In 1992, Melut Basin – Blocks 3 & 7was awarded to Gulf Petroleum Corporation – Sudan (GPC) andin October 1996 GPC was able to drill and reopened Chevron’swells and built an all-weather road from Adar Yale to Melut.Adar Yale was inaugurated in March 1997 with a productioncapacity of only 5,000 b/d and 10,000 b/d in 1998 respectively.Adar Yale site was the first site to produce crude oil to beexported using trucks from Adar Yale to Melut then by boats toKhartoum.In 1997, Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company(GNPOC), a consortium of China, Malaysia, and Sudan, built a1540 km oil pipeline from the oilfields to a marine exportterminal on the Red Sea7-8.On 31 August 1999, the first 1,500 barrels of crude oiltraveled through the pipeline to be loaded onto a tanker whichsailed for refineries in the Far East. Oil production and exporthave increased steadily since then and new discoveries have beenmade. In 2003 the China National Petroleum Corporation(CNPC) announced the discovery of a “world class” oil field inblocks 3 and 7 east of the White Nile, oil production was onaverage 270,000 b/d and 304, 000 b/d in 2004 respectively7.The signing of the comprehensive peace agreement (CPA) inJanuary 2005 between the government of Khartoum and theSouthern Armed forces (SPLA) ending to the long civil war hadimproved conditions for oil production and export. However, theCPA culminated in a referendum with a 98.8 % votes forsuccession. And in 2011, the Republic of South Sudan hasofficially declared as a sovereign country. With the developmentof the oil sectors, oil industry is seen as one of the mostcontributing sectors that will improve on living condition of thecitizens and after the succession of South Sudan from Sudan, itinherited most of the oil wells which gave raise to 26198expectations from the South Sudanese as a catalyst for highincome and wealth creation and others were apprehensivebecause no oil producing country with a history of inland or ofoffshore hydrocarbon has escaped the negative impacts of thesector on the Environment and the socio economic activities ofthe host communities.II. MATERIALS AND METHODS2.1. Study area:South Sudan gained independence from Sudan in July2011. Most of the oil production capacity is now in South Sudan,but the country is landlocked and remains dependent on Sudanbecause it must use Sudan’s export pipelines and port.The Greater Upper Nile is a region of northeastern part ofthe Republic of South Sudan with its capital Malakal, the regioncomprises of Unity, Jonglei, and Upper Nile.The Melut basin is one of the counties of the northernUpper Nile region, South Sudan. The Melut basin is remote andit lies on the northernmost edge of South Sudan. The oildevelopment in blocks 3 and 7 falls under Melut basin and has sofar not been publicly scrutinized due to it being marginalized bythe civil wars and the current conflict in the country. Oildevelopment in northern Upper Nile is concentrated in MelutCounty and Maban on the plain east of the White Nile, whichhosts one of the world’s largest and best-conserved wetlands, theMachar marches. The oil works cut right through it, from Melutto the Sobat River, 200 kilometers further south on the Ethiopianborder.Melut and Maban counties are part of a flat clay plain withseasonal streams (Khor) running from the east to the White Nilein the west. The climate is hot and the area is swampy in therainy season, between June and October, and increasingly dryduring the rest of the year. The inhabitants are predominantlyDinka and Maban agro-pastoralists and non-Muslim. Theymostly live by herding, cultivation, and fishing. During the wetseason, they stay in permanent settlements on the slightly higherground, for the most part, small sandy ridges, surrounded by theblack clay soil that floods and is not fit for settlement. A villagein this area would typically count between 200 and 500inhabitants. There are also numerous smaller settlements,sometimes with a handful of “tukuls” only. In the dry season (i.e.from October to May) the land becomes parched hencepastoralists move their herds toward the river for water, to grazeon and for fishing ground. While in wet seasons, they move tohigher ground. Although Melut basin is one of the richest oilareas, northern Upper Nile is very poor and is characterized bylack of infrastructures such as schools, health centers, pavedroads, portable drinking water infrastructures, poor hygiene, andsanitation.www.ijsrp.org
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2018ISSN 2250-3153199Map 1. 1 South Sudan BasinSource: MPM, 2012Map 1. 2. Republic of South Sudan and Oil Blocks 3 & 7 in Upper Nile 8226www.ijsrp.org
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2018ISSN 2250-3153200Source: ECOS, 2007, Geonames, 2012, Natural Earth Dataset, 2012, MPM, 20122.2. Data SourcesThe study review of oil exploration and production atMelut Basin in Greater Upper Nile and its impact on theEnvironment was developed through analysis of secondarysource data. These sources include reviewed materials present inthe journal, books, national presentations, supplemented by nonpeer reviewed literature from a wide range of other sources,including international and non-governmental organizations, andsome commercial organizations. These sources were collectedthrough comprehensive and extensive literature search usingacademic reference databases including Web of Knowledge,Science Direct and Google scholar (including databases such asaquatic science, conference papers index for life, Environmentand Aquatic science, GeoRef, International Bibliography of theSocial Science, Oceanic Abstracts) were all used to identifyrelevant literature and articles in the news line from the country.This review involved obtaining data from the past and presentstudies, and current literature including field reports. The studyrelied on secondary data, and the data were analyzed usingdescriptive methods to obtain logical deduction and sequentialpresentation of facts from the data obtained that gave a precisepicture of the subject matter.2.3. Petroleum and other Natural ResourcesOil remained the world’s leading fuel, accounting for athird of global energy consumption. Oil gained global marketshare for the second year in a row following 15 years of declinesfrom 1999 to 2014. According to BP, the Dated Brent oil priceaveraged 43.73 per barrel in 2016, down from 52.39 per barrelin 2015 and its lowest (nominal) annual level since 2004. 8226oil consumption growth averaged 1.6 million barrels per day(Mb/d), or 1.6%, above its 10 year average (1.2%) for the secondsuccessive year. China (400,000 b/d) and India (330,000 b/d)provided the largest increments9.Global oil production, in contrast, rose by only 0.4 Mb/d,the slowest growth since 2013. And production in the MiddleEast rose by 1.7 Mb/d, driven by growth in Iran (700,000 b/d),Iraq (400,000 b/d) and Saudi Arabia (400,000 b/d). Productionoutside the Middle East fell by 1.3 Mb/d, with the largestdeclines in the US (-400,000 b/d), China (-310,000 b/d) andNigeria (-280,000 b/d)9.Refinery throughout growth slowed from 1.8 Mb/d in 2015 to 0.6Mb/d last year. Refining capacity grew by only 440,000 b/d,versus 10-year average growth of 1 Mb/d, causing refineryutilization to rise10.Table 1. Proven oil reservesContinentsNorth AmericaSouth and Central AmericaEurope and EurasiaMiddle EastAfricaAsia PacificSource: BP report, 2017.Total proven oil reserves 8.4www.ijsrp.org
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2018ISSN 2250-3153201Thousand Millions barrelsTotal proven oil 01706.7Proven Oil al OS&EurTotContinentsSource: BP, 2017Africa is rich in natural resource ranging from arableland, water, oil, natural gas, minerals, forests, and wildlife. Thecontinent holds a huge proportion of the world’s natural resourceboth renewables and none-renewables11.Africa is home to some 30 percent of the world’sminerals reserves, 8 percent of the world’s natural gas, 12percent of the world’s oil reserves; the continent has 40 percentof the world’s gold and up to 90 percent of its chromium andplatinum. The largest reserves of cobalt, diamonds, platinum, anduranium in the world are in Africa.According to the oil and Gas Journal (OGJ), SouthSudan had 3.5 billion barrels of proved oil reserves, as of p82261, 2014. Accordingly, the majority of the oil reserves are locatedin the oil-rich Muglad and Melut basins of which currently Melutbasins is the only operating oil field in South Sudan because ofcivil conflict and it does produces the Dar blend Crude oil whichis sold at less compared to the Nile blend of the Muglad oilfields.Natural gas associated with oil fields is mostly flared orre-injected. Despite proved reserves of 3 trillion cubic feet, gasdevelopment has been limited in South Sudan. The Republic ofSouth Sudan produce natural gas around 368,417 and areaccordingly being flared.www.ijsrp.org
OtherAReEqpufriuatocabliSonCcoriauthlfoNTAl AnGCGSSEge go Ch on gy uin ab Lib ige ud ud uni untrsrria la ad go pt ea on ya ia an an ia iesProven African Countries with oil reservesInternational Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2018ISSN 2250-3153202proved oil 153045Proved African Oil Reserves in percentageSource: BP, 20172.4. on2.4.1. Oil exploitation and productionIt is referred to a process in which usable petroleum isextracted and removed from the ground. It involves seismicactivities resulting into the degradation of the environment inform of depletion, oil spills, and deforestation without dueconsideration to its regeneration to the impoverishment of thehost communities12. Both exploration and exploitation degradesthe environment in varying capacity and they are usedinterchangeably in this work across the globe.2.4.2. Impacts of gas flaring on airqualityGas flaring is the process of separating and burning of thegas produce during oil resources extraction from the ground. Incountries like the Republic of South Sudan that lacks thetechnological advancement to tap the product gas, burns theproduced gas in a massive flares as waste and are release into theatmosphere (into the air/ environment) without giving dueconsideration of its effects in the environment13. Gas flaringwithout temperature or emissions control pollutes the air andreleased unacceptably high levels of carbon dioxide into theatmosphere for example in the Niger Delta, an independent studyhave revealed that 75% of gas is being flared and contributes toair 2018.p8226Environmental degradation is critical because the ability ofthe environment to support and sustain life depends on the propernatural balance of its parameters such as the water, air, soil, floraand fauna, temperature, oxygen for the sustenance of life on thelife-supporting planet.Oil exploration and production involve various chemicaland seismic wave generation is a major source of environmentaldegradation particularly through liquid discharges and oil spillsas well as gas flaring. Petroleum renders the soil infertile, burnsvegetation and kills useful soil microorganisms therebyhampering agricultural productivity15. Accordingly, beforemineral resources are harnessed, they pass through the stages ofexploration, mining, and processing; different types ofenvironmental damages and hazards inevitably accompany thesethree stages of mineral development16.Oil spills (either in crude or refined form), natural gasflaring and deforestation which are highly associated with oilextraction are common phenomena in the oil communities andhave caused severe environmental degradation in the oilproducing enclaves this is because they contaminate theenvironment, cause water and land pollution with graveconsequences on both human and natural environment due to thetoxic nature of the chemical discharged as it is in the case ofNiger delta17-18.2.4.3. Effluent and Waste dischargeson soilwww.ijsrp.org
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2018ISSN 2250-3153Another source of oil related pollution is the discharge ofeffluents into the surrounding environment, sometimes into thewater, by the oil companies.Oil production has a significant impact on the landscapeand local environment. Contamination of soil and water is amajor common consequence of oil production, particularly inareas with nonexistence or not enforced environmentalregulation. For example in Ecuador, oil and water separationstations in the Oriente generate millions gallons of effluents eachday, most of which are discharged untreated
amount of gas and produce water is produced as by-products in the due caused. South Sudan oil production is characterized by high level of produce water with limited treatment facility and a potential energy source (natural gas) is wasted or flared due to limited or no infrastructure for tapping and using this potential energy. The oil industry in this region has contributed immensely to the .
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