The Scientific Payload
sp1240cover7/7/044:17 PMPage 1SP-1240MARS EXPRESS The Scientific PayloadContact: ESA Publications Divisionc/o ESTEC, PO Box 299, 2200 AG Noordwijk, The NetherlandsTel. (31) 71 565 3400 - Fax (31) 71 565 5433SP-1240M ARS E XPRESSThe Scientific Payload
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:52 PMPage 1SP-1240August 2004M ARS E XPRESSThe Scientific Payload
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:52 PMPage iiSP-1240 ‘Mars Express: A European Mission to the Red Planet’ISBN 92-9092-556-6ISSN 0379-6566iiEdited byAndrew WilsonESA Publications DivisionScientificCoordinationAgustin ChicarroESA Research and Scientific Support Department, ESTECPublished byESA Publications DivisionESTEC, Noordwijk, The NetherlandsPrice 50Copyright 2004 European Space Agency
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:52 PMPage iiiContentsForewordvOverviewThe Mars Express Mission: An OverviewA. Chicarro, P. Martin & R. Trautner3Scientific InstrumentsHRSC: the High Resolution Stereo Camera of Mars ExpressG. Neukum, R. Jaumann and the HRSC Co-Investigatorand Experiment Team17OMEGA: Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l’Eau,les Glaces et l’ActivitéJ-P. Bibring, A. Soufflot, M. Berthé et al.37MARSIS: Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurfaceand Ionosphere SoundingG. Picardi, D. Biccari, R. Seu et al.51PFS: the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer for Mars ExpressV. Formisano, D. Grassi, R. Orfei et al.71SPICAM: Studying the Global Structure andComposition of the Martian AtmosphereJ.-L. Bertaux, D. Fonteyn, O. Korablev et al.95ASPERA-3: Analyser of Space Plasmas and EnergeticIons for Mars ExpressS. Barabash, R. Lundin, H. Andersson et al.121MaRS: Mars Express Orbiter Radio ScienceM. Pätzold, F.M. Neubauer, L. Carone et al.141Beagle 2: the Exobiological Lander of Mars ExpressD. Pullan, M.R. Sims, I.P. Wright et al.165US ParticipationUS Participation in Mars ExpressA.D. Morrison, T.W. Thompson, R.L. Horttor et al.207Acronyms & Abbreviations215iii
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:52 PMPage vFOREWORD
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:52 PMPage viimars express: forewordMars, our most Earth-like planetary neighbour, beckons. Its pristine and diversesurface, equal in area to Earth’s land surface, displays a long and fascinating history,punctuated by impact events, volcanism, tectonics, and aeolian, fluvial and glacialerosion. A century ago, astronomers believed they were witnessing the last attemptsof a dying martian civilisation to cope with the devastating effects of climate change.The notion of an intelligently inhabited Mars was later dispelled, but the expectationthat simple life forms could have survived persisted. Today, after sending roboticmissions to Mars, our view of the planet retains some striking similarities to thoseearlier romantic conjectures.We know from orbiting spacecraft that Mars has undergone dramatic climatic andgeologic changes. Water coursing over its surface in the distant past left dramaticevidence in deeply carved channels and fluvial networks. Yet today we find the planetis cold and dry. There is no evidence so far that life exists there now, but primitive lifeduring Mars’ warmer, wetter past is a real possibility. So, mysteries remain: how didour Earth-like neighbour arrive at its present parched, cold and almost airless state?Did life evolve and then die out? Did it leave a fossil record? Last but not least, canthe changes experienced by Mars teach us something about the dramatic changesbeing predicted for our own planet?These and other questions have spurred scientists and engineers to meet theenormous challenge of sending missions to Mars. A Mars-bound spacecraft mustsurvive journeys of more than 6 months, approach the planet from just the right angleand at the right speed to enter orbit, and then operate successfully to return valuableobservations. Some missions have failed, but the successes have more than repaid theeffort and risk. Our knowledge about Mars has grown dramatically with everysuccessful visit. Four decades of space-based observations have produced moreinformation and knowledge than earlier astronomers with Earth-bound telescopescould have imagined.Europe joins Mars explorationSince the Greeks of more than 2000 years ago, many Europeans have made importantobservations of Mars with the naked eye and through ground-based telescopes,including Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei,Christian Huygens, Giovanni Cassini, William Herschel, Giovanni Schiaparelli andEugene Antoniadi. Europeans have also contributed their fair share of speculation andfantasy about the planet in a fine tradition beginning in 1897 with the publication ofThe War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, in which hostile martians invade Earth.The Soyuz launcher and its precious cargo aretransported to the launch pad on 29 May 2003.vii
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:52 PMPage viiiSP-1240Europe, however, never sent its own spacecraft to Mars – until now. The EuropeanSpace Agency (ESA) launched the Mars Express orbiter and its small Beagle 2 landerin 2003 on Europe’s first mission to any planet. Research institutes throughout Europeprovided the instruments onboard the orbiter, some of them first developed for the illfated Russian Mars-96 spacecraft. Now upgraded, they provide remote sensing of theatmosphere, surface, subsurface and space environment of Mars to a degree ofaccuracy never before achieved. The information being gleaned is helping to answermany outstanding questions about the planet.Mars from 5.5 million km, imaged by the HighResolution Stereo Camera (HRSC). The darkfeatures at top are part of the northernlowlands, where oceans possibly existedbillions of years ago.(ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)The missionMars Express was successfully launched on 2 June 2003 from Baikonur, Kazakhstan,by a Russian Soyuz rocket. Following a cruise of almost 7 months, the main spacecraft was captured into orbit on 25 December 2003 and soon established a highlyelliptical polar orbit with a closest approach to the surface of about 270 km and aperiod of about 6.75 h. The fate of the Beagle 2 lander, aimed to land in Isidis Planitia,remains unknown. In addition to global studies of the surface, subsurface andatmosphere at unprecedented spatial and spectral resolutions, the unifying theme ofthe mission is the search for water with all the instruments in its various stateseverywhere on the planet.ESA provided the launcher, orbiter and operations, while the instruments wereprovided by scientific institutions through their own funding. The ground segmentincludes the ESA station at Perth, Australia, and the mission operations centre atESOC in Germany. The Mars Express prime contractor was Astrium in Toulouse,France, and a large number of European companies were involved as subcontractors.The ESA engineering and scientific teams are located at ESTEC in The Netherlands.International collaboration, through participation either in instrument hardware ordata analysis, is important for diversifying the scope of the mission and improving itsscientific return. Collaboration with the NASA Mars Exploration Rovers plays animportant role because of the complementary science goals.Following spacecraft commissioning in January 2004, most instruments begantheir own calibration and testing, in the process acquiring scientific data. This phaselasted until June 2004, when all the instruments but one began routine operations afterthe payload commissioning review. The deployment of the MARSIS radar antennas,however, was postponed. The late deployment was initially planned to maximisedaylight operations of the other instruments before the pericentre naturally drifts tosouthern latitudes, which coincides with the nightime conditions required forsubsurface sounding by MARSIS. The nominal lifetime of the orbiter is a martianyear (687 days), with a potential extension by another martian year to complete globalcoverage and observe all seasons twice over.Early science resultsThe High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) has provided breathtaking views of theplanet, in particular of karstic regions near the Valles Marineris canyon (pointing toliquid water as the erosional agent responsible for modifying tectonic and impactfeatures in the area) and of several large volcanoes (the Olympus Mons caldera andglaciation features surrounding Hecates Tholus). The OMEGA IR mineralogicalmapping spectrometer has provided unprecedented maps of water-ice and carbondioxide-ice occurrence at the south pole, showing where the two ices mix and wherethey do not. The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) has measured atmosphericcarbon monoxide variations in each hemisphere and confirmed the presence ofmethane for the first time, which would indicate current volcanic activity and/orbiological processes. The SPICAM UV/IR atmospheric spectrometer has providedthe first complete vertical profile of carbon dioxide density and temperature, and hassimultaneously measured the distribution of water vapour and ozone. The ASPERAenergetic neutral atoms analyser has identified the solar wind interaction with theupper atmosphere and has measured the properties of the planetary wind in Mars’viii
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:52 PMPage ixmars express: forewordmagnetic tail. Finally, the MaRS radio science experiment has measured for the firsttime surface roughness by pointing the spacecraft high-gain antenna towards theplanet, reflecting the signal to Earth. Also, the martian interior is being probed bystudying the gravity anomalies affecting the orbit owing to mass variations of thecrust.Water is the unifying theme of the mission, studied by all instruments usingdifferent techniques. Geological evidence, such as dry riverbeds, sediments anderoded features, indicates that water has played a major role in the early history of theplanet. It is assumed that liquid water was present on the surface up to about3.8 billion years ago, when the planet had a thicker atmosphere and a warmer climate.Afterwards, the atmosphere became much thinner and the climate much colder, theplanet losing much of its water in the process; liquid water cannot be sustained on thesurface under present conditions. Mars Express aims to reveal why this drastic changeoccurred and where the water went. A precise inventory of existing water on theplanet (in ice or liquid form, mostly below ground) is important given its implicationsfor the potential evolution of life on Mars; the 3.8 billion-year age is precisely whenlife appeared on Earth, which harboured similar conditions to Mars at that time. Thus,it is not unreasonable to imagine that life may also have emerged on Mars andpossibly survived the intense UV solar radiation by remaining underground. Thediscovery of methane in the atmosphere could indicate just that or the presence ofactive volcanism. From previous orbital imagery, volcanoes on Mars were assumedto have been dormant for hundreds of millions of years. This idea needs a fresh lookas the implications of currently active volcanism are profound in terms of thermalvents providing niches for potential ecosystems, as well as for the thermal history ofthe planet with the largest volcanoes in the Solar System. Mars Express is alreadyhinting at a quantum leap in our understanding of the planet’s geological evolution,complemented by the ground truth being provided by NASA’s rovers.Scope of this publicationThis ESA Special Publication focuses on the Mars Express scientific instrumentationand its state about a year after launch in order to include some initial scientificdiscoveries. In spite of the Beagle 2 failure, the lander’s payload is also thoroughlydescribed here because it is of the highest scientific value. Furthermore, the orbiterinstruments are looking specifically for possible evidence of past or present life. Noother mission to Mars since NASA’s Viking missions in the 1970s has madeexobiology so central to its scientific goals. For further details, both in terms ofscience results and public outreach, see http://sci.esa.int/marsexpress/Spectacular viewsA few spectacular initial results are shown in the next few pages, selected in view oftheir wide public appeal rather than their intrinsic scientific value. All the scientistsinvolved in Mars Express are now busy submitting papers that include importantscientific results, and even a few breakthroughs at this early phase of the mission. Thepurpose here is to give a visual impression of this early science data.Agustin ChicarroProject Scientist, Mars ExpressESTEC, June 2004ix
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:52 PMPage xSP-1240This HRSC image was recorded on 14 January 2004. It shows a portion of a 1700 km-long and65 km-wide swath taken in the south-to-north direction across the huge Valles Marineris canyon. Itis the first Mars image of this size at high resolution (12 m pix–1), in colour and in 3-D.(ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)x
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:53 PMPage ximars express: forewordThis HRSC image was recorded duringrevolution 18 on 14 January 2004. It shows avertical view of a mesa in the true colours ofMars. The summit plateau stands about 3 kmabove the surrounding terrain. Only isolatedmesas remain intact after the original surfacewas dissected by erosion. The large crater hasa diameter of 7.6 km. (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin;G. Neukum)This HRSC image was recorded duringrevolution 18 on 15 January 2004 from aheight of 273 km, east of the Hellas basin at41 S/101 E. The area is 100 km across, with aresolution of 12 m per pixel. It shows the ReullVallis, formed by flowing water. North is attop. (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)xi
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:53 PMPage xiiSP-1240This HRSC image was recorded during revolution 143 from an altitude of 266 km, providing a perspective view of the western flank of the OlympusMons shield volcano in the western hemisphere. The escarpment rises from surface level to more than 7000 m. Resolution is about 25 m per pixel. Thepicture is centred at 22 N/222 E; north is to the left. (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)This HRSC vertical view shows the complexcaldera at the summit of Olympus Mons, thehighest volcano in the Solar System. Theaverage elevation is 22 km; the caldera has adepth of about 3 km. This is the first highresolution colour image of the completecaldera, taken from a height of 273 km duringrevolution 37 on 21 January 2004. Centred at18.3 N/227 E, the image is 102 km across witha resolution of 12 m per pixel; south is at thetop. (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)xii
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:53 PMPage xiiimars express: forewordThis HRSC image shows the Acheron Fossaeregion, an area of intense tectonic activity inthe past. Acheron Fossae marks the northernedge of the Tharsis plateau; it is part of anetwork of extensional fractures that radiatesfrom the Tharsis ‘bulge’, a huge area ofregional uplift of intensive volcanic activity.The region is situated at 35-40ºN / 220-230ºE,about 1000 km north of Olympus Mons.(ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)OMEGA observed the southern polar cap of Mars on 18 January 2004,in all three bands. At right is the visible image; in the middle is carbondioxide ice; at left is water ice. The two types of ice are mixed in someareas but distinct in others. (ESA/IAS, Orsay; J-P. Bibring)xiii
AAsec1.qxd7/8/043:53 PMPage xivSP-1240Initial ASPERA results indicate the very different characteristics of two important regions: the impact area of the solar wind with the upperatmosphere and in the Mars tail (planetary wind), confirming the existence of the planetary wind (O and molecular ions).(ESA/RFI Kiruna; R. Lundin)SPICAM has provided the first complete vertical profileobtained by an orbiter of the density and temperature of carbondioxide from 10 km to 110 km above the surface. It has alsomeasured the distribution of water vapour and ozonesimultaneously for the first time, indicating that where there ismore water vapour there is less ozone.(ESA/CNRS Verrières; J.-L. Bertaux)xivPFS initial results indicate that the atmospheric distribution of carbonmonoxide is different over the northern and southern hemispheres. Thepresence of atmospheric methane has also been confirmed by PFS, whichopens up new possibilities of there being lifeforms on the planet today.Methane is rather short-lived in the martian atmosphere, so the source(s)that replenish it can have only two origins: volcanic or biologic.(ESA/IFSI Frascati; V. Formisano)
Chicarro.qxd7/7/0410:11 AMPage 1MISSION OVERVIEW
Chicarro.qxd7/7/0410:11 AMPage 3The Mars Express Mission: An OverviewA. Chicarro, P. Martin & R. TrautnerPlanetary Missions Division, Research & Scientific Support Department, ESA/ESTEC, PO Box 299,2200 AG Noordwijk, The NetherlandsEmail: agustin.chicarro@esa.intMars Express is not only the first ESA mission to the red planet but also the firstEuropean mission to any planet. Mars Express was launched in June 2003 from theBaikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan aboard a Russian Soyuz rocket. It includedboth an orbiter and a small lander named Beagle 2, in remembrance of CharlesDarwin’s ship. It is the first ‘Flexible’ mission of ESA’s long-term science programme(now known as Cosmic Vision) and was developed in the record time of about 5 yearsfrom concept to launch, and in the most cost-efficient manner with respect to anyother comparable Mars mission.Before Mars Express, ESA and the scientific community spent more than 10 yearsperforming concept and feasibility studies on potential European Mars missions(Marsnet, Intermarsnet), focusing on a network of surface stations complemented byan orbiter, a concept that was further developed by CNES in the recently cancelledNetlander mission. The network concept was considered to be a high scientificpriority in Europe until the demise of the Russian Mars-96 mission, which includedmany outstanding European scientific instruments and which may be reconsidered inthe future. Mars Express was conceived to recover the objectives concerning theglobal study of the planet by the Mars-96 mission, and added two major new themes:water and life, following the recommendations of the International Mars ExplorationWorking Group (IMEWG) and the endorsement of ESA’s Advisory Bodies that MarsExpress be included in the Science Programme of the Agency.The scientific investigations of Mars Express closely complement those of recentUS orbital missions such as Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Odyssey, as well as thespectacular Mars Exploration Rovers. In addition, very close collaboration wasestablished, in anticipation of future collaboration with Japan, with the Nozomimission because the scientific objectives and orbital characteristics werecomplementary. Unfortunately, Nozomi did not reach the planet.1. IntroductionOn 2 June 2003 at 17:45:26 UT, a Soyuz rocket with a Fregat upper stage waslaunched from Baikonur and injected the 1223 kg Mars Express into a Mars transferorbit. Launch windows to Mars occur every 26 months but 2003 was particularlyfavourable because it offered the maximum launch mass, a situation that does notrepeat for another 16 years. This was important; Beagle 2 could not have been carriedin the less-favourable 2005 window.Mars Express is a 3-axis stabilised orbiter with a fixed high-gain antenna andbody-mounted instruments, and is dedicated to the orbital and in situ study of theplanet’s interior, subsurface, surface and atmosphere. It was placed in an ellipticalorbit (250 x 10 142 km) around Mars of 86.35 quasi-polar inclination and 6.75 hperiod, which was optimised for the scientific objectives and to communicate withBeagle 2 and the NASA landers or rovers being launched in 2003-2005.The spacecraft was captured into Mars orbit on 25 December 2003. Followingcompletion of spacecraft commissioning in mid-January 2004, the orbiterexperiments began their own commissioning processes and started acquiring2. Mission Overview3
Chicarro.qxd7/7/0410:16 AMPage 4SP-12406754321Fig. 1. Mars Express with the Beagle 2 capsulestill attached. 1: MARSIS. 2: HRSC.3: OMEGA. 4: PFS. 5: SPICAM. 6: ASPERA.7: Beagle 2. (MaRS requires no dedicatedhardware).4scientific data
AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:52 PM Page iii. FOREWORD AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:52 PM Page v. mars express: foreword Mars, our most Earth-like planetary neighbour, beckons. Its pristine and diverse surface, equal in area to Earth’s land surface, displays a long and fascinating history, punctuated by impact events, volcanism, tectonics, and aeolian, fluvial and glacial erosion. A century ago, astronomers .
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Le genou de Lucy. Odile Jacob. 1999. Coppens Y. Pré-textes. L’homme préhistorique en morceaux. Eds Odile Jacob. 2011. Costentin J., Delaveau P. Café, thé, chocolat, les bons effets sur le cerveau et pour le corps. Editions Odile Jacob. 2010. Crawford M., Marsh D. The driving force : food in human evolution and the future.
Le genou de Lucy. Odile Jacob. 1999. Coppens Y. Pré-textes. L’homme préhistorique en morceaux. Eds Odile Jacob. 2011. Costentin J., Delaveau P. Café, thé, chocolat, les bons effets sur le cerveau et pour le corps. Editions Odile Jacob. 2010. 3 Crawford M., Marsh D. The driving force : food in human evolution and the future.
