Essentials Of GEOLOGY

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Essentials ofGEOLOGY13eA01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 111/16/16 5:02 PM

A01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 211/16/16 5:02 PM

Essentials ofGEOLOGY13eFrederick K. LutgensEdward J. TarbuckIllustrated byDennis Tasa330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013A01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 311/16/16 5:02 PM

Executive Editor, Geosciences Courseware: Christian BottingDirector, Courseware Portfolio Management: Beth WilburContent Producer: Lizette FarajiManaging Producer: Mike EarlyCourseware Director, Content Development: GinnieSimione JutsonCourseware Sr. Analyst: Margot OtwayGeosciences Courseware Editorial Assistant: Emily BornhopRich Media Content Producer: Mia SullivanFull Service Vendor: SPi GlobalFull Service Project Manager: Patty DonovanCopyeditor: Kitty WilsonDesign Manager: Mark OngCover and Interior Designer: Jeff PudaPhoto and Illustration Support: Kevin Lear, International MappingRights and Permissions Project Manager: Kathleen ZanderRights and Permissions Management: Ben FerriniManufacturing Buyer: Maura Zaldivar-GarciaMarketing Managers: Neena Bali/Mary SalzmanCover Image Credit: Tim KempleCredits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on theappropriate page within text or are listed below.Page 6: Quote by Aristotle from The Birth and Developmentof the Geological Sciences by Frank Dawson Adams.Published by Dover Publications, 1954; page 7: Excerptfrom Essentials of Earth History, 3e by William Lee Stokes.Published by Pearson Education Inc., 1973; page 7: Quotefrom Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh by JamesHutton. Published by The Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1788; page 10: Quote from The Common Sense of Scienceby Jacob Bronowski. Published by Harvard University Press, 1953; page 10: Quote from Science for All Americans byF. James Rutherford and Andrew Ahlgren. Published by OxfordUniversity Press, 1990; page 11: Quote by Louis Pasteurfrom Pasteur Vallery-Radot. Published by Masson et cie, 1939; page 37: Quote from The Origin of Continents andOceans by Alfred Wegener. Published by Methuen Publishing,Ltd., 1966; page 14: Quote by R. T. Chamberlain fromA Revolution in the Earth Sciences by Anthony Hallam.Published by Oxford University Press, 1973; page 356:Quote from Exploration of the Colorado River of the West andIts Tributaries. Published by U.S. Government Printing Office, 1875; page 417: Excerpt from Variations in the Earth’s Orbit:Pacemaker of the Ice Ages by J.D. Hays, John Imbrie andN.J. Shackleton in Science, Vol 194, Issue 4270, pp.1121–1132.Published by American Association for the Advancementof Science, 1976; page 438: Quote from The Physics ofBlown Sand and Desert Dunes by R.A. Bagnold. Publishedby Courier Corporation, 2005; page 474: Quote from JamesHutton, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1805.Copyright 2018, 2015, 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publicationis protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to usematerial from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper SaddleRiver, New Jersey 07458.Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appearin this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataNames: Lutgens, Frederick K. Tarbuck, Edward J. Tasa, Dennis.Title: Essentials of geology / Frederick K. Lutgens, Edward J. Tarbuck;illustrated by Dennis Tasa.Description: 13e. [13th edition]. Hoboken, New Jersey : PearsonEducation,2016.Identifiers: LCCN 2016042061 ISBN 9780134446622 ISBN 0134446623Subjects: LCSH: Geology—Textbooks.Classification: LCC QE26.3 .L87 2016 DDC 551—dc23 LC recordavailable at https://lccn.loc.gov/20160420611 16ISBN-10:0-13-466349-7 (HS Binding)ISBN-13: 978-0-13-466349-4 (HS Binding)www.PearsonSchool.com/AdvancedA01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 411/16/16 5:02 PM

BRIEF CONTENTS1An Introduction to Geology2Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds3Matter & Minerals4Igneous Rocks & Intrusive Activity5Volcanoes & Volcanic Hazards6Weathering & Soils1607Sedimentary Rocks1848Metamorphism & Metamorphic Rocks9Earthquakes & Earth’s Interior232669412621623810Origin & Evolution of the Ocean Floor11Crustal Deformation & Mountain Building12Mass Movement on Slopes: The Work of Gravity13Running Water14Groundwater15Glaciers & Glaciation16Deserts & Wind17Shorelines18Geologic Time19Earth’s Evolution Through Geologic Time20Global Climate ric and English Units Compared 556GlossaryIndex557568vA01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 511/16/16 5:02 PM

CONTENTS2 Plate Tectonics: A Scientificpreface   xviiiRevolution Unfoldsdigital and print resources   xviiiwalkthrough  xxi1 An Introduction to Geology1.1Geology: The Science of Earth 41.2The Development of Geology 61.31.4Catastrophism 6The Birth of Modern Geology 6Geology Today 7The Magnitude of Geologic Time 8The Nature of Scientific Inquiry 9Hypothesis 10Theory 10Scientific Methods 10Plate Tectonics and Scientific Inquiry 11From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics 34Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time 352.3The Theory of Plate Tectonics 392.4Divergent Plate Boundaries and Seafloor Spreading 412.5Convergent Plate Boundaries and Subduction 442.62.7Transform Plate Boundaries 48How Do Plates and Plate Boundaries Change? 502.8Testing the Plate Tectonics Model 522.9How Is Plate Motion Measured? 57Earth as a System 11Earth’s Spheres 11Hydrosphere 12Atmosphere 13Biosphere 14Geosphere 14Earth System Science 14The Earth System 15Origin and Early Evolution of Earth 171.6Earth’s Internal Structure 191.82.12.2Physical and Historical Geology 4Geology, People, and the Environment 51.51.72Origin of Planet Earth 17Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure 18Earth’s Crust 19Earth’s Mantle 19Earth’s Core 20Rocks and the Rock Cycle 21The Basic Cycle 21Alternative Paths 21The Face of Earth 2432Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle 35Evidence: Fossils Matching Across the Seas 36Evidence: Rock Types and Geologic Features 37Evidence: Ancient Climates 37The Great Debate 38Rigid Lithosphere Overlies Weak Asthenosphere 39Earth’s Major Plates 40Plate Movement 40Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading 42Continental Rifting 43Oceanic–Continental Convergence 45Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence 46Continental–Continental Convergence 46The Breakup of Pangaea 50Plate Tectonics in the Future 51Evidence: Ocean Drilling 52Evidence: Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots 53Evidence: Paleomagnetism 54Geologic Measurement of Plate Motion 57Measuring Plate Motion from Space 582.10 What Drives Plate Motions? 59Forces That Drive Plate Motion 59Models of Plate–Mantle Convection 60Concepts in Review 61Give It Some Thought 63Major Features of the Ocean Floor 26Major Features of the Continents 26Concepts in Review 28Give It Some Thought 30viA01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 611/16/16 5:02 PM

viiContents3 Matter & Minerals3.13.23.33.466Igneous Compositions 984.3Igneous Textures: What Can TheyTell Us? 100Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks 68Defining a Mineral 68What Is a Rock? 69Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals 70Properties of Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons 70Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons 71The Octet Rule & Chemical Bonds 72Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred 72Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing 73Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move 74Properties of Minerals 74Optical Properties 74Crystal Shape, or Habit 75Mineral Strength 76Density & Specific Gravity 78Other Properties of Minerals 78Compositional Categories 98Silica Content as an Indicator of Composition 100Types of Igneous Textures 1004.4Naming Igneous Rocks 1034.5Origin of Magma 1084.6How Magmas Evolve 110Why Atoms Bond 72Felsic Igneous Rocks 105Intermediate Igneous Rocks 106Mafic Igneous Rocks 106Pyroclastic Rocks 106Generating Magma from Solid Rock 108Bowen’s Reaction Series & the Compositionof Igneous Rocks 110Magmatic Differentiation & Crystal Settling 111Assimilation & Magma Mixing 1113.5Mineral Groups 793.6The Silicates 803.7Common Silicate Minerals 823.83.94.2Classifying Minerals 79Silicate Versus Nonsilicate Minerals 794.7Partial Melting & Magma Composition 1124.8Intrusive Igneous Activity 1144.9Mineral Resources & Igneous Processes 117Silicate Structures 80Joining Silicate Structures 81The Light Silicates 82The Dark Silicates 85Important Nonsilicate Minerals 86Minerals: A Nonrenewable Resource 88Renewable Versus Nonrenewable Resources 88Mineral Resources & Ore Deposits 88Formation of Basaltic Magma 113Formation of Andesitic & Granitic Magmas 113Nature of Intrusive Bodies 114Tabular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes & Sills 115Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, & Laccoliths 116Magmatic Differentiation & Ore Deposits 118Hydrothermal Deposits 119Origin of Diamonds 120Concepts in Review 120Give It Some Thought 124Concepts in Review 91Give It Some Thought 924 Igneous Rocks &Intrusive Activity4.194Magma: Parent Materialof Igneous Rock 96The Nature of Magma 96From Magma to Crystalline Rock 97Igneous Processes 97A01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 711/16/16 5:02 PM

viiiContents5 Volcanoes & VolcanicHazards5.15.2126Mount St. Helens Versus Kilauea 128The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions 129Magma: Source Material for Volcanic Eruptions 129Effusive Versus Explosive Eruptions 130Effusive Hawaiian-Type Eruptions 131How Explosive Eruptions Are Triggered 1315.3Materials Extruded During an Eruption 1335.45.5Anatomy of a Volcano 136Shield Volcanoes 137Lava Flows 133Gases 135Pyroclastic Materials 135Mauna Loa: Earth’s Largest Shield Volcano 137Kilauea: Hawaii’s Most Active Volcano 1385.6Cinder Cones 1395.75.8Composite Volcanoes 141Volcanic Hazards 1425.9Parícutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone 140Pyroclastic Flow: A Deadly Force of Nature 142Lahars: Mudflows on Active & Inactive Cones 144Other Volcanic Hazards 1446 Weathering & Soils6.16.2Weathering 162Mechanical Weathering 1636.3Chemical Weathering 1666.4Rates of Weathering 1686.5Soil: An Indispensable Resource 1706.6Describing & Classifying Soils 1736.7The Impact of Human Activities on Soil 1765.10 Plate Tectonics & Volcanism 150Volcanism at Divergent Plate Boundaries 151Volcanism at Convergent Plate Boundaries 151Intraplate Volcanism 154Frost Wedging 163Salt Crystal Growth 163Sheeting 164Biological Activity 165The Importance of Water 166How Granite Weathers 167Weathering of Silicate Minerals 167Spheroidal Weathering 168Rock Characteristics 168Climate 169Differential Weathering 169What Is Soil? 171Controls of Soil Formation 171The Soil Profile 173Classifying Soils 175Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest: A Case Studyof Human Impact on Soil 176Soil Erosion: Losing a Vital Resource 177Other Volcanic Landforms 146Calderas 146Fissure Eruptions & Basalt Plateaus 147Lava Domes 149Volcanic Necks 1491606.8Weathering & Ore Deposits 180Bauxite 180Other Deposits 180Concepts in Review 181Give It Some Thought 183Concepts in Review 156Give It Some Thought 158A01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 811/16/16 5:03 PM

ixContents7 Sedimentary Rocks7.1184Common Metamorphic Rocks 2258.5Metamorphic Environments 2288.6Metamorphic Zones 232An Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks 186Importance 186Origins 1877.2Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 1887.3Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 1927.47.58.4Shale 189Sandstone 190Conglomerate & Breccia 192Limestone 193Dolostone 195Chert 195Evaporites 196Coal: An Organic Sedimentary Rock 197Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock:Diagenesis & Lithification 198Diagenesis 198Lithification 198Foliated Metamorphic Rocks 226Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks 227Contact, or Thermal, Metamorphism 229Hydrothermal Metamorphism 229Burial & Subduction Zone Metamorphism 231Regional Metamorphism 231Other Metamorphic Environments 231Textural Variations 232Index Minerals & Metamorphic Grade 233Concepts in Review 234Give It Some Thought 2369 Earthquakes & Earth’s Interior2389.1What Is an Earthquake? 240Importance of Sedimentary Environments 201Sedimentary Facies 201Sedimentary Structures 2019.2Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves 2447.8Resources from Sedimentary Rocks 2069.39.4Locating the Source of an Earthquake 246Determining the Size of an Earthquake 2487.9The Carbon Cycle & Sedimentary Rocks 2109.5Earthquake Destruction 2509.6Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur? 2559.7Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? 2579.8Earth’s Interior 2617.67.7Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 199Sedimentary Rocks RepresentPast Environments 200Nonmetallic Mineral Resources 206Energy Resources 207Concepts in Review 211Give It Some Thought 2148 Metamorphism & MetamorphicRocks8.18.28.3216What Is Metamorphism? 218What Drives Metamorphism? 219Heat as a Metamorphic Agent 219Confining Pressure 220Differential Stress 220Chemically Active Fluids 221The Importance of Parent Rock 222Metamorphic Textures 222Foliation 222Foliated Textures 224Other Metamorphic Textures 225A01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 9Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes 240Aftershocks & Foreshocks 242Faults & Large Earthquakes 242Fault Rupture & Propagation 243Instruments That Record Earthquakes 244Seismic Waves 244Intensity Scales 248Magnitude Scales 248Destruction from Seismic Vibrations 251Landslides & Ground Subsidence 252Fire 252Tsunamis 253Earthquakes Associated with Plate Boundaries 255Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies 256Short-Range Predictions 258Long-Range Forecasts 259Probing Earth’s Interior: “Seeing” Seismic Waves 261Earth’s Layered Structure 261Concepts in Review 263Give It Some Thought 26611/16/16 5:03 PM

xContents10 Origin & Evolution of the OceanFloor26810.1An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor 27010.2Continental Margins 27410.3Features of Deep-Ocean Basins 27610.410.5Mapping the Seafloor 270Provinces of the Ocean Floor 274Mountain Building 306Subduction & Mountain Building 30711.6Collisional Mountain Belts 30911.7Vertical Motions of the Crust 314Passive Continental Margins 274Active Continental Margins 275Deep-Ocean Trenches 276Abyssal Plains 277Volcanic Structures on the Ocean Floor 277Explaining Coral Atolls—Darwin’s Hypothesis 278Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge 279Oceanic Ridges & Seafloor Spreading 280Seafloor Spreading 281Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated? 281Spreading Rates & Ridge Topography 28110.6The Nature of Oceanic Crust 28210.7Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin 28410.811.411.5Work of GravityThe Importance of Mass Movement 32212.2Controls & Triggers of Mass Movement 32412.3Classification of Mass Movement Processes 32812.4Common Forms of Mass Movement:Rapid to Slow 33011 Crustal Deformation & Mountain29211.1Crustal Deformation 29411.2Folds: Rock Structures Formed by Ductile Deformation 29711.3Faults & Joints: Rock Structures Formed by BrittleDeformation 301What Causes Rocks to Deform? 294Types of Deformation 296Factors That Affect How Rocks Deform 296Anticlines & Synclines 298Domes & Basins 299Monoclines 30032012.1Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts 286Subducting Plates: The Demise of Ocean Basins 287BuildingThe Principle of Isostasy 314How High Is Too High? 31512 Mass Movement on Slopes: TheDestruction of Oceanic Lithosphere 286Concepts in Review 289Give It Some Thought 290Cordilleran-Type Mountain Building 309Alpine-Type Mountain Building: Continental Collisions 310The Himalayas 311The Appalachians 312Concepts in Review 316Give It Some Thought 318How Does Oceanic Crust Form? 282Interactions Between Seawater & Oceanic Crust 283Evolution of an Ocean Basin 284Failed Rifts 286Island Arc–Type Mountain Building 307Andean-Type Mountain Building 307Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, & Great Valley 308Landslides as Geologic Hazards 323The Role of Mass Movement in Landscape Development 323Slopes Change Through Time 324The Role of Water 324Oversteepened Slopes 324Removal of Vegetation 326Earthquakes as Triggers 327The Potential for Landslides 328Type of Material 328Type of Motion 329Rate of Movement 329Rockslide & Debris Avalanche 331Debris Flow 332Earthflow 33412.5Very Slow Mass Movements 334Creep 334Solifluction 335The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape 335Concepts in Review 336Give It Some Thought 338Dip-Slip Faults 301Strike-Slip Faults 303Joints 304A01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 1011/16/16 5:03 PM

Contents13 Running Water34013.1Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle 34213.2Running Water 34313.3Streamflow Characteristics 34713.4The Work of Running Water 350Earth’s Water 342Water’s Paths 342Storage in Glaciers 343Water Balance 343Drainage Basins 344River Systems 345Drainage Patterns 346Factors Affecting Flow Velocity 347Changes Downstream 349Stream Erosion 350Transport of Sediment by Streams 351Deposition of Sediment by Streams 35314 Groundwater36814.1The Importance of Groundwater 37014.2Groundwater & the Water Table 37214.3Storage & Movement of Groundwater 37414.4Wells & Artesian Systems 37714.5Springs, Geysers, & Geothermal Energy 379Groundwater & the Hydrosphere 370Geologic Importance of Groundwater 370Groundwater: A Basic Resource 371Distribution of Groundwater 372Variations in the Water Table 372Interactions Between Groundwater & Streams 374Influential Factors 374How Groundwater Moves 375Wells 377Artesian Systems 378Springs 379Hot Springs 380Geysers 380Geothermal Energy 38113.5Stream Channels 35313.6Shaping Stream Valleys 35514.6Environmental Problems 38313.7Depositional Landforms 35914.7The Geologic Work of Groundwater 38613.8Bedrock Channels 353Alluvial Channels 353Base Level & Graded Streams 356Valley Deepening 356Valley Widening 357Incised Meanders & Stream Terraces 357Deltas 359The Mississippi River Delta 359Natural Levees 360Alluvial Fans 361Floods & Flood Control 362xiTreating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource 383Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Withdrawal 384Saltwater Contamination 384Groundwater Contamination 385Caverns 387Karst Topography 388Concepts in Review 390Give It Some Thought 392Types of Floods 362Flood Control 363Concepts in Review 364Give It Some Thought 366A01 TARB3494 13 SE FM.indd 1111/16/16 5:03 PM

xiiContents15 Glaciers & Glaciation39415.1Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles 39615.2Formation & Movementof Glacial Ice 399Valley (Alpine) Glaciers 396Ice Sheets 396Other Types of Glaciers 398Glacial Ice Formation 399How Glaciers Move 399Observing & Measuring Movement 400Budget of a Glacier: AccumulationVersus Wastage 40115.315.415.515.617 Shorelines17.1The Shoreline & Ocean Waves 44217.2Beaches & Shoreline Processes 44517.3Shoreline Features 44917.4Contrasting America’s Coasts 45217.5Hurricanes: The Ultimate Coastal Hazard 45517.6Stabilizing the Shore 45917.7Tides 462Glacial Erosion 402How Glaciers Erode 403Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion 404Glacial Deposits 407Glacial Drift 407Moraines, Outwash Plains, & Kettles 408Drumlins, Eskers, & Kames 410Other Effects of Ice Age Glaciers 411Crustal Subsidence & Rebound 411Sea-Level Changes 411Changes to Rivers & Valleys 412Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes 412Pluvial Lakes 413The Ice Age 414Historical Development of the Glacial Theory 414Causes of Ice Ages 415Concepts in Review 418Give It Some Thought 42016 Deserts & Wind440A Dynamic Interface 442Ocean Waves 442Wave Characteristics 443Circular Orbital Motion 443Waves in the Surf Zone 444Wave Erosion 446Sand Movement on the Beach 446Erosional Features 449Depositional Features 449The Evolving Shore 451Coastal Classification 452Atlantic & Gulf Coasts 453Pacific Coast 454Profile of a Hurricane 455Hurricane Destruction 456Hard Stabilization 459Alternatives to Hard Stabilization 461Causes of Tides 462Monthly Tidal Cycle 463Tidal Currents 463Concepts in Review 464Give It Some Thought 46642216.1Distribution & Cau

1 An Introduction to Geology 2 11. Geology: The Science of Earth 4 Physical and Historical Geology 4 Geology, People, and the Environment 5 21. The Development of Geology 6 Catastrophism 6 The Birth of Modern Geology 6 Geology Today 7 The Magnitude of Geologic Time 8 31. The nature of Scientific Inquiry 9 Hypothesis 10 Theory 10 Scientific .

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