SIXTH EDITION Essentials Of Geology - GBV

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SIXTH EDITIONEssentialsof GeologyFrederick K. LutgensEdward J. TarbuckIllinois Central CollegeIllustrated byDennis TasaPrentice HallUpper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

ContentsPrefacexi1An Introduction to GeologyThe Science of Geology 2Historical Notes about Geology 2Catastrophism 3The Birth of Modern Geology 3Geologic Time 4The Nature of Scientific Inquiry 5Collecting Facts 6Hypothesis 6Theory 6Scientific Methods 8A View of Earth 8Hydrosphere 9Atmosphere 9Lithosphere .9Biosphere 10Dynamic Earth 11Plate Tectonics 11 - Plate Boundaries 12Divergent Boundaries 12Convergent Boundaries 13Transform Fault Boundaries 13Earth as a System: The Rock Cycle 14The Basic Cycle 14Alternative Paths 17The Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics 18Crystal Form 29Luster 30Color 30Streak 30Hardness 30Cleavage 30Fracture 31Specific Gravity 31Other Properties of Minerals 31Mineral Groups 32Silicate Structures 32Common Silicate Minerals 34Important Nonsilicate Minerals 37Mineral Resources 38Igneous Rocks 44Crystallization of Magma 45Igneous Rock Textures 47Igneous Rock Composition 49Bowen's Reaction Series 49Magmatic Differentiation 50Assimilation and Magma Mixing 51Naming Igneous Rocks 51Granitic Rocks 53Andesitic Rocks 56Basaltic Rocks 56Pyroclastic Rocks 56Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes57Minerals: Building Blocksof Rocks 23Volcanoes and OtherIgneous Activity 65Minerals Versus Rocks 24Composition and Structure of MineralsAtomic Structure 25How Atoms Bond Together 26Covalent Bonds 28Isotopes and Radioactivity 28Properties of Minerals 29Anatomy of an Eruption 66Not All Volcanoes are Alike 68The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions 68Factors Affecting Viscosity 68Importance of Dissolved Gases in MagmaWhat is Extruded During Eruptions? 70Lava Flows 70vi2570

Contents viiGases 71Pyroclastics 71Volcano Types 72Shield Volcanoes 72Cinder Cones 73Composite Cones 74Nuee Ardente 75Lahar 75Volcanic Landforms 78Volcanic Pipes and Necks 78Craters and Calderas 78Fissure Eruptions and Lava Plateaus 80Pyroclastic Flows 80Volcanoes and Climate 80Intrusive Igneous Activity 82Intrusive Igneous Bodies 83Igneous Activity and Plate Tectonics 83Origin of Magma 83Distribution of Igneous Activity 86Weathering and Soils93Earth's External Processes 94Weathering 94Mechanical Weathering 94Frost Wedging 96Unloading 96Thermal Expansion 97Biological Activity 97Chemical Weathering' '98Water and Carbonic Acid 98How Granite Weathers 98Weathering of Silicate Minerals 98Spheroidal Weathering 99Rates of Weathering 99Mineral Makeup 99 Climate 100Soil 100An Interface in the Earth System 101.What Is Soil? 101Controls of Soil Formation 102Parent Material 102Time 103Climate 103Plants and Animals 103Slope 104The Soil Profile 104Soil Types 106Pedalfer 106Pedocal 106Laterite 106Soil Erosion 108How Soil Is Eroded 108Rates of Erosion 108Sedimentation and Chemical PollutionWeathering Creates Ore Deposits 109Bauxite 110Other Deposits 110Sedimentary Rocks109114Types of Sedimentary Rocks 115Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 115Shale 116Sandstone 117Conglomerate and Breccia 119Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 120Limestone 120Dolostone 122Chert 122Evaporites 123Coal 123Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock 124Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 124Sedimentary Structures 126Nonmetallic Mineral Resources FromSedimentary Rocks 129Energy Resources From Sedimentary Rocks 130Coal 131Oil and Natural Gas 1327Metamorphic Rocks13 7Metamorphism 138Where Does Metamorphism Occur? 138Agents of Metamorphism 139Heat as a Metamorphic Agent 139Pressure as a Metamorphic Agent 140Chemical Activity as a Metamorphic Agent 140How Metamorphism Alters Rocks 141Textural Changes 141Mineralogical Changes 142Common Metamorphic Rocks 143Foliated Rocks 143Nonfoliated Rocks 145Environments That Metamorphose Rocks 146Contact Metamorphism 146Regional Metamorphism 147Metamorphism Along Fault Zones 150Metamorphism and Mineral Resources 150

v i i i Contents8Mass Wasting155Mass Wasting and Landform Development 156Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting 156The Role of Water 156Oversteepened Slopes 156Vegetation 156 Earthquakes as Triggers 158Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes 158Type of Material 158Type of Motion 158Rate of Movement 160Slump 160Rockslide 161Mudflow 161Mudflows in Semiarid Regions 162Lahars 163Earthflow 163Slow Movements 164Creep 164Solifluction 164Running Water169Earth as a System: The Hydrologic CycleRunning Water 171Streamflow 172Changes Downstream- 173Base Level and Graded Streams 175Work of Streams 176Erosion 176Transportation 177Deposition 178Stream Valleys 180Narrow Valleys 180Wide Valleys 182Drainage Basins and Patterns 183Stages of Valley Development 18417010Groundwater191Importance of Underground Water 192Distribution of Underground Water 192The Water Table 193How Groundwater Moves 195Porosity 196Permeability, Aquitards and Aquifers 196Springs 196Wells 197Artesian Wells 198Environmental Problems of Groundwater 199Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource 199Land Subsidence Caused by GroundwaterWithdrawal 199Groundwater Contamination 200Hot Springs and Geysers 201Geothermal Energy 203The Geologic Work of Groundwater 204Caverns 204Karst Topography 20511Glaciers and Glaciation210Glaciers: A Part of the Hydrologic Cycle 211How Glaciers Move 212Rates of Glacial Movement 212Budget of a Glacier 214Glacial Erosion 215Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion 216Glaciated Valleys 216Aretes and Horns 217Roches Moutonnees 218Glacial Deposits 218Types of Glacial Drift 218Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles 220Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames 222Glaciers of the Past 223Some Indirect Effects of Ice Age Glaciers 223Causes of Glaciation 225Plate Tectonics 225Variations in Earth's Orbit 22612Deserts and Wind232Common Misconceptions 233Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands 234Low-Latitude Deserts 234Middle-Latitude Deserts 234Geologic Processes In Arid Climates 234Weathering 235The Role of Water 236Transportation of Sediment by Wind 237Bed Load 237Suspended Load 238Wind Erosion 238

ContentsDeflation, Blowouts, and Desert PavementWind Abrasion 240Wind Deposits 240Sand Deposits 240Types of Sand Dunes 241Loess Deposits 243Basin and Range: The Evolution of a DesertLandscape 24423915Earthquakesand Earth's Interior249Waves 250How Waves Form 251How Waves Move 251Wave Erosion 252Wave Refraction 253Moving Sand Along the Beach 254Shoreline Features 255Wave-Cut Cliffs and Platforms 255Arches, Stacks, Spits, and Bars 255Barrier Islands 256The Evolving Shore 257Shoreline Erosion Problems 257Groins 258Breakwaters and Seawalls 259Beach Nourishment 260Contrasting the Atlantic and Pacific CoastsEmergent and Submergent Coasts 261Tides 261Causes of Tides 263Spring and Neap Tides 265260269The Vast World Ocean 270Earth Beneath the Sea 271Continental Margins 272Continental Shelf 272Continental Slope and Rise 273Submarine Canyons and Turbidity CurrentsThe Ocean Basin Floor 276Deep-Ocean Trenches 277Abyssal Plains 277Seamounts 279Mid-Ocean Ridges 279Coral Reefs and Atolls 280Seafloor Sediments 281Terrigenous Sediment 28216Plate Tectonics14the Ocean Floor287What Is an Earthquake? 289Earthquakes and Faults 289Elastic Rebound 291Foreshocks and Aftershocks 292Tectonic Forces and Earthquakes 293Earthquake Waves 293Finding Earthquake Epicenters 296Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude 298Destruction from Earthquakes 299Destruction from Seismic Vibrations 300Tsunami 301Landslides and Ground Subsidence 302Fire 303Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? 303Short-Range-Predictions 304Long-Range Predictions 304Earthquakes Reveal Earth's Interior 306Discovering Earth's Structure 306Discovering Earth's Composition 30713ShorelinesBiogenous Sediment 282Hydrogenous Sediment 283273313Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time 315Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle 315Evidence: Fossils Match Across the Seas 315Evidence: Rock Types and StructuresMatch 317Evidence: Ancient Climates 317The Great Debate 318Plate Tectonics: A Modern Version of anOld Idea 319Plate Boundaries 322Divergent Boundaries 322Convergent Boundaries 326Transform Boundaries 329Testing the Plate Tectonics Model 330Evidence: Paleomagnetism 330Evidence: Earthquake Patterns 334Evidence: Ocean Drilling 334Evidence: Hot Spots 335Pangaea: Before and After 336Breakup of Pangaea 336ix

XContents19Before Pangaea 337The Driving Mechanism 339Convection Current Hypothesis 339Slab-Push and Slab-Pull Hypotheses 340Hot Plumes Hypothesis 340Earth History:A Brief Summary17Mountain Building345Crustal Uplift 346Isostasy 347Isostatic Adjustment 347Rock Deformation 348Folds 349Faults and Joints 350Mountain Types 353Fault-Block Mountains 354Upwarped Mountains 356Folded Mountains 356Mountain Building 356Mountain Building at Convergent BoundariesMountain Building and Continental Accretion393Origin of Earth 394Earth's Atmosphere Evolves 396Precambrian Time: Vast and Enigmatic 396Precambrian Rocks 397Precambrian Fossils 398Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes 398Early Paleozoic History 401Early Paleozoic Life 401Late Paleozoic History 402Late Paleozoic Life 403Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs 405Mesozoic History 405Mesozoic Life 407Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals 409Cenozoic North America 410Cenozoic Life 412358362Appendix AMetric and English Units Compared18Geologic Time369Relative Dating— Key Principles 370Law of Superposition 371Principle of Original Horizontality 371Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships 371Inclusions 373Unconformities 373Using Relative Dating Principles 374Correlation of Rock Layers 375Fossils: Evidence of Past Life 375Types of Fossils 375Conditions Favoring Preservation 379Fossils and Correlation 379Absolute Dating with Radioactivity 380Radioactivity 380Half-Life 382Radiometric Dating 382Carbon-14 Dating 384Importance of Radiometric Dating 385The Geologic Time Scale 385Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale 387Appendix BPeriodic Table of the ElementsAppendix CMineral Identification KeyAppendix DTopographic MapsGlossary434Index 446427424423421

Essentials of Geology Frederick K. Lutgens Edward J. Tarbuck Illinois Central College Illustrated by Dennis Tasa Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. Contents Preface xi 1 An Introduction to Geology The Science of Geology 2 Historical Notes about Geology 2 Catastrophism 3 The Birth of Modern Geology 3 Geologic Time 4 The Nature .

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