Technical Report Computer Assisted And Online Data .

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TECHNICAL REPORTComputer-assisted and online datacollection in general population surveysKaterina SkarupovaSeptember, 2014

AcknowledgementsThis report is based on work carried out by Katerina Skarupova in 2013 andinformation provided by the general population survey experts from 19 EU MemberStates (1), Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (in the frameworkof the IPA ( 2 ) programme). The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and DrugAddiction would like to thank all those who contributed to this work.(1) Austria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Estonia, France, Finland, Greece,Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Slovenia, Sweden and the United Kingdom.(2) Instrument of Pre-Accession.2

ContentsI. Introduction . 5II. A glimpse of history: an alternative theoretical framework . 6II.1Mixed-mode surveys . 8II.2Methodological specifics of online data collection . 9II.2.ACost reduction and increased time efficiency . 9II.2.BError reduction . 10II.2.CRepresentativeness, sampling and recruitment modes. 10II.2.DResponse rates and non-response errors . 11II.2.EBenefits and disadvantages of self-completion . 11II.2.FEthical, legal and security issues . 12II.2.GSome technological aspects . 12II.3Internet penetration and computer skills . 12III. Methods . 16III.1Aims and scope of the study. 16III.2 Literature review on computer-assisted data collection (CADAC) inrepresentative samples . 16III.2.ADatabases and other sources . 16III.2.BInclusion criteria . 17III.2.CLimitations . 17III.3European drug survey map . 18III.4Survey among EMCDDA national experts . 18IV. Literature review . 19IV.1Computer-assisted interviewing . 19IV.1.AComputer-assisted versus traditional modes . 19IV.1.BAudio-guided interviewing . 19IV.2Online data collection . 20IV.3Evidence from literature reviews . 283

V. Overview of the studies . 31Population sampling . 33VI. Survey of the EMCDDA national experts on GPS . 40VI.1Surveys . 40VI.1.ASampling strategies, recruitment modes and reminders . 40VI.1.BQuestionnaire design and software . 41VI.1.CData management and data quality . 42VI.1.DCosts . 43VI.1.EDifficulties and future plans . 43VI.2Views on online data collection in countries with no online survey. 43VI.2.AObstacles to conducting an online survey . 44VII. Conclusion . 45References . 46Annex 1. Examples of online data collection tools. 50Annex 2. Checklist for reporting the results of Internet e-surveys . 51Annex 3. Questionnaire for the national experts . 55Annex 4. Online data collection summary (information from experts whoreported their experience with online data collection in general population orschool surveys) . 574

I. IntroductionThe advent of computers in the realm of social research has represented a huge stepforward. Computer-assisted interviewing for online surveys and research has madedata-gathering easier, quicker and cheaper. Online research methods are bringingabout complex and thorough changes in the field. The most commonly mentionedadvantages include a reduction in costs and errors, advanced design features andnew elements including audio and video content, and the possibility of using newplatforms, such as smartphones and tablets. However, many challenges and issuesare yet to be resolved, including sampling strategies, penetration of the Internet,software solutions and start-up costs.Some of these changes have had unexpected consequences. For example, thesimplicity and low cost of online data collection have led to an unprecedenteddemocratisation of survey research. Online questionnaire applications are simple,user friendly, accessible to anyone with an Internet connection, and often free ofcharge. On the one hand they provide researchers with instant and cheap access topowerful design features, a variety of question formats and useful tools (e.g. simplestatistical modules and panel management features); on the other hand they maylead to less robust methodological considerations and to the institutionalisation ofbad practice (e.g. misrepresentation of convenient samples) (Lee et al., 2008). Whileonline data collections are easy to do because they are cheap and quick, good onlinesurveys are increasingly difficult to carry out due to over-surveying of the Internetpopulation, low response rates and sample biases (Couper, 2000).Computers are also increasingly used in drug-related research, especially in generalpopulation surveys, either as an improvement to or in addition to more traditionalways of interviewing, and also as a complete substitution for existing practices.Although computer-assisted interviewing (CAPI/CATI) is not new in the drug field andsome countries have been using it for more than a decade, web-based datacollection methods were introduced fairly recently and with a degree of caution. Therelative novelty of computerised methods and the fact that drug use is an extremelysensitive issue created the need and opportunity to explore in detail whatresearchers can expect in terms of the validity, comparability and cost-effectivenessof their results.The aim of the present report is, first, to collect information from a literature review on(1) computer-assisted interviewing and (2) online data collection in probabilisticsamples in general. It evaluates the pros and cons of both approaches in terms ofresearch processes and outcomes. Second, it provides an overview of representativestudies on drug use conducted in the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs andDrug Addiction (EMCDDA) countries that used either computer-assisted interviewingor online data collection. Third, it has collected views and methodological details fromthe EMCDDA network of national experts on general population surveys.Rapid developments in communication technology and the relatively low cost ofonline data collection, compared with other methods, mean that it is almost inevitablethat online data collection will be implemented more widely in the future. This reportis the outcome of the EMCDDA project (CC.12.EPI.007) to explore and mapmethods of computerised data collection in general population surveys. It is a timelycontribution to the knowledge base and it points to the importance of monitoringprogress with a view to developing guidelines for online data collection in generalpopulation surveys.5

II. A glimpse of history: an alternative theoretical frameworkComputer-assisted data collection (CADAC) ( 3 ) includes both computer-assistedinterviewing and online data collection, with the latter eliminating the need for aninterviewer. Computers were introduced to social and (primarily) to marketingresearch conducted via telephone in the 1970s. In the course of the following decade,computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) was followed by computer-assistedpersonal interviewing (CAPI) and computer-assisted self-interviewing (CASI), as aresult of the development of more affordable, and more portable, computers.Computers considerably reduced the amount of work associated with data collection,by automating some phases (e.g. data entry, coding) and omitting others entirely (e.g.printing and posting back the questionnaire). A number of derived methods weredeveloped, including disk-by-mail (a questionnaire distributed via postal mail on afloppy disk), computer-assisted video interviewing (CAVI) and virtual interviewing,some of which are now obsolete. Some of these methods were based on the use ofnow-archaic technologies; others were fairly minor techniques under development ortechniques used for specific purposes (e.g. in experimental or marketing research).The latest development embodies web/online data collection that takes advantage ofmore widespread Internet access and, more recently, mobile Internet access onhand-held devices (e.g. smartphones, tablets). Although the terms ‘Internet survey’and ‘online survey’ are often used interchangeably, some authors consider Internetsurveys to be a sub-type of online surveys, acknowledging the possibility of other ICTnetworks besides the Internet (Vehovar and Manfreda, 2008). Internet surveys wereinitially conducted via email (either in the form of an attachment or within themessage body), while they currently often involve a programmed questionnairedisplayed in the web browser.Figure 1. The relationship between Internet surveys, online surveys and computer-assisted surveyinformation collection (Vehovar and Manfreda, 2008).Computer-assistedsurvey informationcollection (e.g. CATI,CAPI, CASI)Online surveysInternet surveys(web surveys and emailsurveys)(3) The term computer-assisted survey information collection (CASIC) is used by some authors as analternative to CADAC.6

Several types of computer-assisted data collection modes are described in theresearch literature; these differ (1) in the burden placed on respondent andinterviewer during the interview, (2) in the number of steps that are computerisedalong the process of interview and (3) in the actual questionnaire delivery (seeTable 1). The distinction, however, refers only to the mode of data collection anddoes not concern sampling and recruitment strategies. Mixed methods may usetraditional ways of contacting respondents (e.g. via postal mail or telephone) andrefer them to an online questionnaire using a (personalised) URL. Similarly, websurvey applications may be used on laptops during face-to-face (F2F) interviews(CAPI/CASI), combining personal and online interview modes.Table 1. Overview of survey data collection modes and their theoretical strengths and disadvantages.Compilation from the literature. (Saris, 1991, Fienberg, 2003, Dillman, 2007, Vehovar and Manfreda,2008).Stands forPAPI*Postalmail*Pen and paperpersonal interviewPen and papermail interviewRole redMain strengthsMain weaknesses– Effective recruitment.– Support for respondent.– Low social desirability biasand interviewer effect.– Cheap.– Respondent free to choosetime.– Same as PAPI.– Smoother progress throughthe questionnaire.– Minimum data entry errors.– Same as CAPI.– Lower social desirability biasand interviewer effect.– Cheaper than F2Finterviews.– Higher response rates.– Smoother progress throughthe questionnaire.– Minimum data entry errors.– Same as CATI.– Lower social desirabilitybias.– Same as TDE.– High costs.– Time-consuming.– Low response rates.– Lack of control over theanswering process.CAPIComputerassisted erassisted f-administeredTDETouchtone dataentrySelf-administeredIVR/TACASIInteractive viewingOnline emailsurveySelf-administeredSelf-administered– Same as postal mail survey.– Very cheap.WebsurveysOnline web surveyadministeredwithin a ation oftraditional andonline datacollectionmethodsCan be selfadministered orintervieweradministered– Same as email survey.– Less time-consuming.– Smoother progress throughthe questionnaire.– Minimum data entry errors.– Offers a variety of questionformats, including the use ofmultimedia.– Combines strengths ofseveral modes.– Gives respondents freedomto choose their preferredmode of data – Same as PAPI.– High start-up costs.– Same as CAPI.– Lower response ratecompared to F2F.– Incomplete sampleframes.– Only suitable for shortquestionnaire.– Same as CATI– Lack of active feedbackto respondent.– Same as TDE.– Same as postal mailsurvey.– Requires a certain levelof digital access andliteracy.– Requires specificsampling strategies andrecruitment techniques.– Uncertain responserates.– Same as email survey.– Uncertain responserates.– Difficult to avoid andrecognise double entries.– Mode effect inresponses.Note: * Traditional survey modes.7

In personal interviews, an interviewer has to perform a number of tasks, starting withcontacting respondents and obtaining their consent. The questioning phase is acomplex process that requires the interviewer to cope with: presenting questions,answer categories and instructions to the respondent; motivating the respondent;checking, coding and recording the answers; following skipping patterns andbranching; and providing explanations and support to respondent (Saris, 1991). InCATI and CAPI the computer performs many of these steps, leaving the interviewerfree to give their full attention to the respondent. This approach may alsosubstantially reduce data entry errors (Tortora, 1985). However, it requires carefulquestionnaire design and programing, paying special attention to question types andanswer formats and to branching and rounding patterns.As Saris (1998) has pointed out, the respondent’s interview experience does notchange much in CATI/CAPI data collection modes, as it is the interviewer who isdelivering the questionnaire, asking questions, and recording answers either inperson or via the telephone. Computer-assisted self-interviewing (CASI) and onlinedata collection give the respondent a more active role and require more skills thansimple understanding, recalling and answering a question. Self-interviewing isbelieved to reduce social desirability bias, but when conducted via telephone(TDE/IVR) it may lead to increased numbers of people dropping out during theinterview, as respondents need active feedback to stay motivated for longer periods(Tourangeau et al., 2002). On the other hand, online data collection givesrespondents substantial freedom in terms of when and where he/she will completethe questionnaire, and how long they will spend on it.The future of telephone surveys in general is endangered by the increased use ofmobile phones, and therefore they suffer from under-representativeness. Computerassisted self-interviewing over the telephone could help to reduce the rising costs oftelephone interviews (Boland et al., 2006).II.1Mixed‐mode surveysMixed-mode surveys represent a specific category of research design that combinesvarious modes of data collection, recruitment techniques and sampling strategies inorder to fulfil the demands of particular research questions. They may be used eitherto capture a broader spectrum of respondents when it is anticipated that specific subgroups would not be reached via one mode of data collection, or to compensate forthe weaknesses of each method. With the increasing popularity of online datacollection, mixed-mode surveys often compensate for low Internet penetration insome social groups.Dillman (2007) distinguishes five potential scenarios of mixed-mode surveys, theirobjectives and methodological consequences. (1) Collection of the same data fromdifferent members of the sample and (2) collection of panel data from the samesample at a later time reduces costs and improves response, but may lead tomeasurement differences. (3) Collection of different data from the same respondentduring a single data collection period is expected to improve measurement andreduce research costs. (4) Collection of comparison data from different populations isusually driven by convenience and cost reduction. (5) Use of one mode only toprompt completion by another mode has no apparent negative consequences andshould improve coverage and reduce non-response. Scenarios 1 to 4 refer just tomode of data collection, and scenario 5 describes mixing modes throughout theresearch process (i.e. from recruitment to data collection); these may be mutuallycombined.8

Mixing modes of data collection takes various forms in terms of time distributionalongside the research process. Sometimes the cheapest option is offered to allrespondents first, and a different option is only used to follow up those who did not orcould not respond to the first option. Another approach offers a variety of modes atthe same time and allows the respondent to choose the most convenient. A classicexample of a mixed-mode strategy would be a survey in which a postcard is sent bypostal mail to all sampled respondents, containing individualised access details to anonline questionnaire. A first reminder, also posted, contains a link to the onlinequestionnaire together with a hard copy of the questionnaire and a return envelope.A second reminder may take the form of a postcard.Although mixing modes of data collection may increase response rates and reducecosts, this approach carries an additional burden of mode effect on responses.These are generally associated with the differences between self-administered andinterviewer-administered questionnaires (see Section II.2), but are also observedwhen comparing paper and online self-completed questionnaires, or personal andtelephone interviews.II.2Methodological specifics of online data collectionWhile in CAPI and CATI computers

II. A glimpse of history: an . hand-held devices (e.g. smartphones, tablets). Although the terms ‘Internet survey’ and ‘online survey’ are often used interchangeably, some authors consider Internet surveys to be a sub-type of online surveys, acknowledging the possibility of other ICT networks besides the Internet (Vehovar and Manfreda, 2008). Internet surveys were initially conducted .

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