Publication CNRE-43P Analysis Of Financial Statements .
Publication CNRE-43PAnalysis of Financial Statements Using RatiosHenry J. Quesada, Associate Professor and Extension Specialist, Sustainable Biomaterials1. Introduction to Financial ManagementTable of Contents1. Introduction toFinancialManagement.12. The Balance Sheet.12.1 Assets.12.2 Liabilities.32.3 Stockholders’Equity.3Financial management is a critical internal process for organizations. With today’schallenges and regulations, to the management of every organization (profit ornonprofit) needs to have an understanding of the basics of financial managementto ensure that the organization is fiscally responsible. The understanding offinancial management practices and the construction of basic systems andpractices are the foundation for a healthy/sustainable organization.Financial management covers the following aspects: Financial statement analyses: These include income, balance sheet, and cashflow statements. Capital budgeting: These techniques and methods compare differentinvestment alternatives and usually include the analysis of future cash flows(negative and positive). Taxation.3. The IncomeStatement.44. The Cash FlowStatement.55. Financial StatementAnalysis Basics.75.1 Liquidity Ratios.75.2 Debt Ratios.95.3 ProfitabilityRatios.105.4 Other FinancialRatios.116. Final Comments.117. Exercises.12 Legal considerations: Organizations might engage in various public activitiessuch as lobbying, advocacy, contracts, risk management, and public support. Accounting: Bookkeeping systems require that certain standards are followedto develop and report financial transactions. Sustainability: The ability of a firm to develop strategies for growth anddevelopment.In this publication we cover the basics of using ratio analysis to analyze financialstatements. Horizontal and vertical analyses are other common techniques tocompare and analyze financial statements from different reporting periods.There are three main financial statements that need to be understood to evaluatethe financial condition, profitability, and cash flows of any organization: thebalance sheet, the income statement, and the cash flow statement. This publicationcovers the fundamental concepts to construct and analyze these critical financialstatements.2. The Balance SheetThis statement shows the financial condition of a company for a particular periodor date. It has three major sections: assets (resources of the company), liabilities(debts of the company), and stockholders’ equity (the owners’ interest in the firm).For any given period in the balance sheet, total assets must equal the total amountof the contributions of the creditors and owners. This is expressed in the accountingequationwww.ext.vt.eduProduced by Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, 2019Virginia Cooperative Extension programs and employment are open to all, regardless of age, color, disability, gender, gender identity, gender expression, national origin, political affiliation, race, religion, sexual orientation, genetic informa-tion, veteran status, or any other basis protected by law. An equal opportunity/affirmative action employer. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia State University, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating. Edwin J. Jones, Director, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg; M. Ray McKinnie, Administrator, 1890 Extension Program, Virginia State University, Petersburg.VT/0519/CNRE-43P
Assets liabilities stockholders’ equity.Figure 1 presents a typical balance sheet for a furniture company.*2.1 AssetsFigure 1. Balance sheet for Haverty Furniture (in millions of dollars).Assets are future economic benefits obtained or controlled by an entity as a result of past transactions or events.They could be physical (land, buildings, equipment) or intangible (patents or trademarks). Assets are divided intocurrent assets and long-term assets. Current assets are cash or assets that can be turned into cash in less than oneyear. Current assets are related to the liquidity (ability to convert to cash) of the company. Some examples arecash, marketable securities (government bonds, common stock, or certificates of deposit), short-term receivables,inventories, and pre-paids (taxes, hazard insurance, or special assessments).Long-term assets take more than one year or one operating cycle to turn into cash, and they are usually dividedinto tangible assets, investments, intangible assets, and other. Depreciation is one example of a long-term asset.Depreciation is the process of allocating the cost of buildings and machinery over the time periods in analysis. Themost common method to calculate depreciation is called the straight-line method. The formula isAnnual depreciation (cost – salvage value)estimated life.*Wharton Research Data Services was used in preparing this manuscript. The service and the data available thereon constitute valuableintellectual property and trade secrets of WRDS and/or its third-party suppliers.2
Another type of long-term asset is investments, which are usually stocks and bonds of other companies that are heldto maintain a business relationship or exercise control. Examples of intangible assets include patents, trademarks,franchises, organizational costs, and copyrights.Figure 2. Income statement in single-step format for Haverty Furniture (in millions of dollars).2.2 LiabilitiesLiabilities are future sacrifices arising from present obligations of a particular entity to transfer assets or provideservices to other entities. Similar to assets, liabilities are classified into current and long-term liabilities. Currentliabilities require liquidation of current existing assets within one year or cycle period. They include the payables,unearned income (payments collected in advance), and other current liabilities.Long-term liabilities refer to obligations that are due later than one year or operating cycle — whichever is longer.There are two general types: financing arrangements and operational obligations. Financing arrangements mightinclude Notes payable: Promissory notes due in periods of greater than one year or operating cycle. Bonds payable: Debt securities. Credit arrangements: Loan commitments with banks or insurance companies.Long-term liabilities related to operational obligations include obligations arising from operation of a business,pension obligations, postretirement obligations, deferred taxes, and service warranties.Deferred taxes result from using different accounting methods for tax and reporting systems. For example, a companymight use accelerated depreciation for tax purposes and straight-line depreciation for reporting purposes. This causestax expenses for reporting purposes to be higher than taxes payable according to the tax return. The difference isconsidered deferred tax.2.3 Stockholders’ EquityStockholders’ equity is the residual ownership interest in the assets of an entity that remains after deducting itsliabilities and is usually divided in two basic categories: paid-in capital and retained earnings.Paid-in capital could be preferred or common. Retained earnings are the undistributed earnings of the corporation(the net income for all past periods minus the dividends that have been declared).3
3. The Income StatementAn income statement summarizes revenues and expenses, and gains and losses. It ends with the net income for aspecific time or period. Two common formats to present an income statement are the multiple-step and the singlestep income statement. In the first case, gross profit, operating income, income before taxes, and net income arepresented separately. In the second case, total revenues and gains are presented, and then expenses and losses arededucted. Figure 2 shows an income statement for Haverty Furniture in single-step format.The net sales or sales turnover represents revenue from goods or services sold to customers. Sales are usually shownnet of any discounts, returns, or allowances. Depending on the type of operations of the firm, there might be otherrevenue such as lease revenue or royalties.The cost of goods sold or cost of sales shows the costs to produce revenue. In a retail firm, this represents thebeginning inventory plus purchases minus the ending inventory. In manufacturing, the COGS replaces purchasesbecause the goods are produced (raw material, labor, and overhead) rather than purchased. A service firm will have noCOGS but a cost of services instead. Table 1 shows how the COGS is calculated for a retail business.Table 1. Calculation of the cost of goods sold for a retail business.ItemBeginning inventoryAmount200Plus purchases 800Subtotal1,000Minus ending inventory– 400COGS600Figure 3 shows how to calculate the COGS for a manufacturer. Notice that you need to divide the materials into raw,work in process, and finished goods inventories. Similar to a retailer, there will be beginning and ending inventoriesfor each type of inventory. The difference from a retailer is that labor and other costs (known as overhead) will beadded to the cost of the raw materials.In figure 3 at the end of the analyzed period, a total of 125 worth of materials (see Raw Materials column) wasmoved to the work in process inventory (Work in Process column). Notice that no labor or other costs were addedto raw materials because this is just a warehouse operation. In the Work in Process column, there is also a beginningand ending inventory, but we also have to consider the materials moved from the Raw Materials column ( 125), thelabor ( 40), and overhead or other cost ( 10). A similar logic is applied to the finished goods inventory (FinishedGoods column), where 225 worth of materials comes from the work in process inventory. As with the raw materialsinventory, no labor or overhead is added to the product in the finished goods inventory. The final calculation for theCOGS is the number shown circled in the Finished Goods column, which is the finished product that it was sold.Figure 3. Calculation of cost of goods sold for a manufacturer.4
There are two types of operating expenses: selling and administrative. Selling expenses result from the efforts of thefirm to create sales and include advertising, sales commissions, sales supplies, etc. Administrative expenses relateto the general management of the company’s operation, such as salaried office employees, insurance, telephone, baddebt expense, and other costs difficult to allocate to the firm’s main products.Non-operating income is any income or expense resulting from secondary business-related activities, excludingthose considered part of the normal operations of the business. They could include dividend income, rental income,royalty income, foreign exchange adjustments, moving expenses, and others. Special items comprises unusual ornonrecurring items presented before taxes by the firm. This might include flood, fire, other natural disaster losses,inventory write-downs, reserve for litigation, and others. Pretax income is composed of operating and non-operatingincome before provisions for income taxes and minority interests.Income taxes include all income taxes imposed by federal, state, and foreign governments. Net income adjustedfor common ordinary stock (capital) equivalent represents the company’s net income available to commonshareholders after preferred dividend requirements have been met. Earnings per share (basic) is basic earnings pershare before extraordinary items and discontinued operations, and earnings per share (diluted) is basic earnings pershare for common shares after allowing for the conversion of convertible senior stock and debt and the exercise ofwarrants and other items.4. The Cash Flow StatementThe cash flow statement includes not only cash, but also short-term, highly liquid investments. The cash flowstatement examines all the accounts on the balance sheet to explain changes in these accounts. It is used to determinedividend policy, cash generated by operations, and investing and financing policy. Outsiders might use the cash flowstatement to determine the firm’s ability to increase dividends, its ability to pay debt with cash from operations, andthe percentage of cash from operations in relation to the cash from financing.The cash flow statement classifies each receipt and cash payment into operating, investing, and financing activities.Operating activities usually involve income statement items, and investing activities involve long-term asset items.Financing activities are related to long-term liability and stockholders’ equity items. Some of the typical cash flowitems by categories are shown below.Operating activities Cash inflows: Income. Return on loans. Return on equity securities. Cash outflows: Loans from banks. Purchase of debt or equity securities. Purchase of property, machinery, or other. Cash outflows: Acquisition of inventory. Payments to employees. Taxes. Interest expense. Payment to supplier.Financing activitiesInvesting activities Cash inflows: Receipts from loans collected. Sales of debt or equity securities. Sales of property, machinery, or other. Cash inflows: Sale of equity securities. Sales of bonds, mortgages, notes, and other short- orlong-term borrowings. Cash outflows: Payment of dividends. Reacquisition of the firm’s capital stock. Payment of amounts borrowed.5
The cash flow statement presents cash flow from operating activities first, followed by investing activities, and thenfinancing activities. The cash flow statement can be presented using the direct or indirect method. In the directmethod, the income statement is presented on a cash basis. In the indirect method, net income is adjusted for itemsthat affected the net income but did not affect cash.Figure 4 shows a cash flow statement using the indirect method, where the income is adjusted accordingly. Noticethat items can be shown as a decrease (negative) or increase (positive) in cash. For instance, the item Inventory inthe Operating Activities section) is positive for 2009 and 2010 but negative for 2011. This means that in 2009 and2010 the company decreased the size of the inventory, generating more cash. On the contrary, in 2011 the companyincreased the size of the inventory impacting the cash flow by – 1.775 million.In figure 4’s Operating Activities section, the items Income before extraordinary items and Depreciation andamortization are taken directly from the income statement (fig. 2; just as Accounts Receivable and Inventory aretaken from fig. 1). Other items in this section, such as Accounts Payable and Accrued Liabilities; Sale of Property,Plant, and Equipment and Investments; and Funds from Operations might require additional information thatwas not specifically shown in the balance sheet (fig. 1) or the income statement (fig. 2).Items in the Investing Activities section (fig. 4) are not straightforward and require additional information. They arenot taken directly from either the balance sheet or the income statement but from other company records such asstock statements, investments, and loans.Figure 4. Cash flow for Haverty Furniture (in millions of dollars).6
5. Financial Statement Analysis BasicsFinancial statement analysis involves techniques to compare financial data and to evaluate the position of a company.These techniques include ratio analysis, common-size analysis, comparisons across companies, trend analysis, andyear-to-year analysis. It is important to mention that ratios vary between industries. For example, a company in thefurniture industry should only compare against benchmarks in its own industry. In this paper, financial data fromHaverty Furniture (a publically traded company) is used to illustrate the concepts.5.1 Liquidity RatiosLiquidity ratios are a measure a firm’s ability to meet its current obligations. Maintaining a short-term paying abilityis critical for any organization and even a profitable company might become bankrupt if short-term obligations arenot honored. When analyzing short-term paying capacity, there is a close relationship between current assets andcurrent liabilities that needs to be understood. In general, current liabilities will be paid with cash generated fromcurrent assets. The following section addresses some of the most important liquidity ratios to help analyze the shortterm paying capacity of any firm. Days’ sales in receivables is calculated asDays’ sales in receivables gross receivablesgross receivables/(net sales/365).The result of this ratio should be equal to or less than the credit term of the firm. For example, if the credit termis 30 days, the days’ sales receivables should not be over 30 days. If it is bigger, the company might have acollections problem. If we calculate this ratio for Haverty Furniture for 2009, the result is 104.2 days. Because wedon’t know what the company’s credit term is, it is difficult to estimate if there is a collections problem. However,we could calculate the ratio for 2010 and 2011. The results indicate that for 2010, the days’ sales receivable ratio is104.0 days, and for 2011, it is 104.4. As we can see 2010 and 2011 were very similar to 2009. Accounts receivable turnover in days: This ratio indicates the liquidity of the receivables. The formula isAccounts receivable turnover in days average gross receivables(net sales/365).This ratio should be as small as possible to indicate that the organization has a quick turnaround to collect moneyfrom its customers. Days’ sales in inventory: This ratio gives an indication of the length of time it will take to use up the inventorythrough sales. The calculation is as follows:Days’ sales in inventory ending inventory(cost of goods sold/365).For Haverty Furniture, this ratio is 129.3, 117.9, and 121.3 days for 2009, 2010, and 2011, respectively. Thisindicates that in 2009, it took 129.3 days for the company to sell its inventory. This time decreased in 2010 butincreased in 2011.7
Table 2. Liquidity ratios for Haverty Furniture.YearRatios200920102011Days’ sales .83.13.0Inventory turnover in days129.3117.9121.3Operating cycle138.8126.0128.0Working capital96.9106.3105.3Current ratio2.42.52.5Acid test ratio1.01.21.2Accounts receivable turnover in daysDays’ sales in inventoryInventory turnover Inventory turnover: This ratio indicates liquidity of the inventory. The formula iscost of goods soldInventory turnover average inventory.The quicker the company turns its inventory, the more liquidity the company has. Calculations of this ratio for2009, 2010, and 2011, indicated in table 2, show that the company turned its inventory faster in 2011 than 2009.The inventory turnover can be also calculated in days by using the following formula:Inventory turnover in days average inventory(cost of goods sold/365).As we can see from table 2, the inventory turnover in days has decreased when comparing 2011 with 2009. Operating cycle: This ratio is important for measuring the time between the acquisition of goods and the finalcash realization resulting from sales and subsequent collections. The formula isOperating cycle accounts receivable turnover in days inventory turnover in days.As table 2 shows, the company is taking less time now to realize cash from inventories (from 138.8 days in 2009to 128.0 days in 2011). For some industries this length of time still could be considered long and could negativelyimpact the cash flow of the company. The bottom line here is to realize cash as fast as possible. Working capital: This ratio is an indication of the short-run solvency of the business, and it is calculated asWorking capital current as
Introduction to Financial Management Financial management is a critical internal process for organizations. With today’s challenges and regulations, to the management of every organization (profit or nonprofit) needs to have an understanding of the basics of financial management to ensure that the organization is fiscally responsible. The understanding of financial management practices and .
CNRE Information Technology Customer Satisfaction Survey Report January 2012 3 Methodology In the fall of 2011 a survey was developed to assess the quality of service of the CNRE IT group and to gather information on how the IT group could better serve the college. The survey was
(Double solenoid) Connector assembly SY9000-37-2A (Single solenoid) Connector assembly SY9000-37-1A 5 Port Solenoid Valve Type43P When a longer DIN rail is desired than the specified stations, specify the station number to be required into mark. SS5Y9-43P-05B-C12 1 set (Type 43, 5 station manifold base part no.)
DOCUMENT RESUME ED 393 315 FL 023 649 AUTHOR Lawson, Edwin D. TITLE The Onomastic Treasure of the CIA. PUB DATE 28 Dec 95 NOTE 43p.; Paper presented at a Meeting of the American
DOCUMENT RESUME. ED 417 113 SO 028 541. AUTHOR Brooks, Gordon P. TITLE Humor in Leadership: State of the Art in Theory and. Practice. PUB DATE 1992-00-00 NOTE 43p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the. Mid-Western Education Research Association (Chicago, IL, October 1992). PU
DOCUMENT RESUME. EC 303 831. Quality Preschool Screening: How To Get There from Here. AZ-TAS Themes & Issues: A Series of Topical Papers on Special Education. Arizona State Dept. of Education, Phoenix. Div. of Special Education. Department of Education, Washington, DC. Sep 92 43p
DOCUMENT RESUME ED 368 563 SE 054 287 AUTHOR Lorson, Mark V. TITLE A Computerized Weather Station for the Apple Ile. PUB DATE [Aug 93] NOTE 43p. AVAILABLE FROM Mark V. Lorson, Jonathan Alder High School, 6440. Kilbury-Huber Road, Plain City, OH 43026 (author written programs can be obta
DOCUMENT RESUME. ED 418 381 CS 013 156. AUTHOR Culbert, Elizabeth; Flood, Michelle; Windler, Rachel; Work, Debra TITLE A Qualitative Investigation of the Use of Graphic. Organizers. PUB DATE 1998-05-00 NOTE 43p.; Paper presented at the SUNY-Geneseo Annual Reading
find protein coding genes in E.coli DNA using E.coli genome DNA sequence from the EcoSeq6 database maintained by Kenn Rudd. This HMM includes states that model the codons and their frequencies in E.coli genes, as well as the patterns found in the intergenic region, including repetitive extragenic palindromic sequences and the Shine - Delgarno motif. To account for potential sequencing errors .
