MARITIME TRANSPORT IN SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES

2y ago
18 Views
2 Downloads
705.09 KB
14 Pages
Last View : 2m ago
Last Download : 2m ago
Upload by : Asher Boatman
Transcription

6MARITIMETRANSPORTIN SMALL ISLANDDEVELOPING STATESSmall island developing States are small in area, in population and in economy. Smallness isa factor of vulnerability in different ways. It very often implies a small domestic market and anarrow resource base for export opportunities, with limited agricultural or mineral productionor manufactures, leading to a high share of imports in GDP. Transport costs of SIDS trade arecomparatively high because small volumes of trade have to travel long and indirect routes toreach distant markets. As open and small economies, SIDS are also vulnerable to global economicand financial shocks. Furthermore, most SIDS are vulnerable to natural hazards, because theyare located unfavourably in relation to global weather systems and in areas prone to strongweather events, including those associated with the foreseeable impacts of climate change.This chapter highlights some of the related obstacles faced by transport services connectingSIDS to global markets, such as costs and connectivity issues, as well as disruptive weatherrelated events affecting the reliability of transport and logistics services.Contributions made by experts at a recent ad hoc expert meeting organized by UNCTAD arealso reflected in the final part of the chapter. These include new approaches to address theunique transport-related challenges facing SIDS and suggestions on the way forward with someconcrete actionable recommendations. Proposed actions and measures of particular relevanceare regrouped in three main interlinked categories: SIDS transport and trade logistics-relatedchallenges; climate-change impacts and adaptation for transport infrastructure; and financingsustainable and resilient transport systems in SIDS.

REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2014106A. INTRODUCTIONSmall island developing States regroup a collection ofcountries that are diverse in many aspects, includingin terms of their geographical location and respectivelevels of development.115 They have in common to besmall in land and population, to be sea locked, to bedeveloping countries, and to be independent States.Despite some differences in the profile, structure andflows of their trade, SIDS share a number of commonfeatures from an international transport perspective:geographic remoteness from their main trade partners;limited volumes of trade; trade imbalances stemmingfrom a heavy reliance on imports; and low volumesof exports highly concentrated in a few products.For many of them, their vast territorial waters add tothe difficulty and complexities of their domestic interisland transport systems.As highly open economies, most SIDS are particularlydependent on their foreign trade and suffer from astrong exposure to external variations, including globalor regional financial and economic crises. Also, due totheir geographical location in areas of strong weatherand seismic events, many SIDS find themselvesamongst the most vulnerable territories in terms ofexposure to natural hazards and foreseeable impactsof climate change. Both economic and environmentalrisks have significant bearings on their transportsystems in terms of reliability and costly operation.B. REMOTENESS FROM GLOBALSHIPPING NETWORKSRemoteness from the main global trade routesconstitutes a major disadvantage in terms of costFigure 6.1. Interregional container flows, 2011 (Thousands of TEUs)Source: UNCTAD secretariat, based on data provided by Lloyd’s List Containerisation International, various issues.

CHAPTER 6: SUSTAINABLE FREIGHT TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT AND FINANCEand time to access international markets. Spreadacross different regions, SIDS, grouped here as theCaribbean, the Indian Ocean, the West African andthe Pacific regions, lie outside the major East–Westmaritime trade routes. These routes connect thethree economic regions of Asia (Far East, WesternAsia and South Asia), Europe (Northern Europe andthe Mediterranean) and North America (figures 6.1and 6.2). Many SIDS, which are highly dependenton containerized imports, are nevertheless in noposition to share in the gains that may be generatedalong a maritime belt or a corridor carrying around85 per cent of global containerized trade flowsexclusively through the northern hemisphere, andwhich excludes countries located in the southernhemisphere.Figure 6.2 shows that at no time does the belt orcorridor enter the southern hemisphere where manySIDS are located; when it crosses the Pacific andAtlantic Oceans it reaches relatively high northerlylatitudes.While SIDS are not at the centre stage of theseEast–West trade patterns, it is, however, thissame belt of shipping services that determines themaritime transport connectivity and costs of SIDS.They may in a way benefit from container serviceoperators’ strategies such as hub-and-spokefeedering, interlining and relay services, with huband-spoke being the most prevalent.116 The huband-spoke strategy, in particular, has led to theemergence of a number of regions where feederships carry containers to and from larger hub ports.The main trading regions include North Europe, the107Mediterranean, Western and South Asia, SouthEast Asia, Central-East Asia, North-East Asia andthe Caribbean.The relay strategy is most often used to connectthe East–West services on the belt to North–Southservices to Africa, Australia and South America. Theprincipal ports acting as relay ports are Algeciras,Tanger Med and Las Palmas at the eastern end ofthe Mediterranean (for South America and Westand South Africa); Gioia Tauro (for the Indian Oceanislands and Australia); Salalah (for East and SouthAfrica as well as the Indian Ocean islands); Singapore(for Africa, South America, Australia and the Pacificislands); Hong Kong (China) and Kaohsiung (for thePhilippines and the northern Pacific islands); Busan(for the Pacific islands); and Manzanillo and LazaroCardenas (Mexico), Panama (East and West Coast),Kingston (Jamaica) and Freeport (Bahamas) (forSouth America).C. SHIPPING SERVICES OF SMALLISLAND DEVELOPING STATESEach regional group of SIDS keeps different spatiallinks with the main East–West container flows. TheCaribbean SIDS are advantaged by their location atthe cross point between the East–West routes, whileSIDS in the Pacific and Indian Oceans are locatedoutside the belt. In the Indian Ocean, Mauritius isrelatively better positioned as it is located at thecrossroads between the Asia–Africa/South Americaroute and the Europe–Australia route. The PacificFigure 6.2. Main East–West shipping route and location of largest container portsSource: UNCTAD secretariat, based on port traffic data from UNCTAD Review of Maritime Transport, various issues, and a map ages/large/shipping laness.png (accessed 6 October 2014).

108islands are remote from the East–West belt. TheWest African island of Cape Verde is relatively closeto Las Palmas, a Global trans-shipment port, whileSao Tome and Principe is off the beaten track.Consequently, in addition to any prevailing economicdifferences, variations in their geographical positionsand relative distance from the main East–Westcontainerized maritime routes should be borne inmind when addressing transport and trade logisticschallenges of SIDS.1. CaribbeanAs the global East–West belt passes through themiddle of the Caribbean, SIDS in the region benefitfrom a relative geographical advantage. Additionally,proximity to the United States means that they can takeadvantage of that country’s cabotage laws, containerinspection and security regulations and readiness oftheir ports to accept Post-panamax container vessels.Services to or through the Caribbean are providedby global operators (CMA-CGM, Maersk and MSC)or their brand names117 as well as the G6 Alliance(Hapag-Lloyd, NYK Line, OOCL, Hyundai MerchantMarine, APL and Mitsui O.S.K. Lines) or their membersindividually.The trans-shipment/relay status of Freeport-Bahamas,Kingston and Port of Spain is reflected in that theyhave the largest number of direct connectionswith countries outside the Caribbean. Thus, unlesscontainers are coming from or going to France,Guyana, Jamaica, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, theUnited Kingdom or the United States. they will need tobe trans-shipped at one of those ports (and possiblyelsewhere as required by the trade).2. Indian Ocean islandsApart from Maldives, and while outside the globalEast–West mainlanes, Indian Ocean SIDS118 arenevertheless located on, or close to, a number ofNorth–South routes including: Europe to Australia;East Asia to East Africa; East Asia to South Africa;East Asia to West Africa as well as East Asia to theEast Coast of South America. At the same time, theseislands are at the intersection between the North–South route linking South and East Africa to WesternAsia and South Asia.Current shipping services include (a) SIDS in the IndianOcean connecting to Asia (North, Central-East, andREVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2014South-East Asia), (b) the Mediterranean and Australia,(c) North–South services between South and EastAfrica (including the Indian Ocean islands) to WesternAsia and South Asia, and (d) feeder services linkingSIDS within the Indian Ocean area.3. PacificThe Pacific SIDS are not located on the global East–West belt; they are served, directly or indirectly,through the global feeder/relay ports of Singapore,Hong Kong (China)/Kaohsiung and Busan. They arealso served, directly or indirectly, from or throughAustralia and New Zealand. In addition, there areservices from the West Coast of North Americato the islands in the North Pacific, a West Coastof North America to Australia and New Zealandservice that calls at one South Pacific island on thesouthbound leg of its voyage, and a Pacific North–West service to Australia that calls at one SouthPacific island on the northbound leg of its voyage.There are no direct services between SIDS in thePacific and Europe.4. West AfricaIn West Africa, Sao Tome and Principe is not locatedon the global East–West belt. Neither is Cape Verde,although it is better positioned in relation to a numberof global hubs, including Las Palmas and Tanger Medin Morocco.Sao Tome and Principe is mainly serviced outof Portugal, while Cape Verde is serviced out ofLas Palmas and Tanger Med as well as Portugal.Connections to the rest of the world for both countriesuse trans-shipment ports. In broad terms, CapeVerde and Sao Tome and Principe are only connectedto some countries in Europe and West Africa. In thecase of both countries, African connections tendto be with neighbouring countries on the Africanmainland. Hence, Cape Verde is connected to theGambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania andMorocco, while Sao Tome and Principe is connectedto Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon andNigeria.For both countries, from outside the continent theirports are called at before liner services call at the portsof other African countries, and in both cases, reducedtrade volumes are registered with neighbouringcountries – especially in the case Sao Tome andPrincipe.

CHAPTER 6: SUSTAINABLE FREIGHT TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT AND FINANCEFigure 6.3.109Expenditures on international transport as a percentage of the value of imports, average 2004–201324%16%8%World averageTuvaluVanuatuTongaTrinidad and TobagoTimor-LesteSeychellesSolomon IslandsSamoaSao Tome and PrincipeSaint Vincent and the GrenadinesSaint LuciaPapua New GuineaSaint Kitts and NevisPalauNauruMicronesia (Federated States of)MauritiusMaldivesMarshall rbadosCape VerdeBahamasAntigua and Barbuda0%Source: UNCTAD estimates.D. TRANSPORT COSTS IN SMALLISLAND DEVELOPING STATES2. Determinants of small islanddeveloping States freight costs1. Data on international transportcosts in small island developingStatesEmpirically, determinants of international transportcosts can be grouped into six main categories(UNCTAD, 2012; Micco et al., 2003; Sourdin,2012; UNCTAD, 2008), notably economies ofscale, trade imbalances, the type and value ofthe traded goods, geographical distance, thelevel of competition among transport serviceproviders, and the characteristics of the sea- andairports as regards their infrastructure, operationand management. These different determinantsare linked to each other; low trade volumes, forexample, may lead to diseconomies of scale and atthe same time also reduce the level of competition.The impact of each determinant may vary overtime; for example, if the price of fuel increases, theimpact of a longer distance on freight costs will befelt stronger.Empirically, most SIDS pay higher freight costsfor the transport of their imports than the worldaverage. Figure 6.3 provides UNCTAD estimates forthe 10-year average of selected SIDS expenditureson international transport costs as a share of thevalue of their imports (2004–2013 average). Theaverage SIDS have paid 2 per cent more than theworld average of 8.1 per cent during the period.The highest values are estimated for the Comoros(20.2 per cent), followed by Seychelles (17.9 percent), Solomon Islands (17.4 per cent) and Grenada(17.0 per cent).

110The following section discusses the situation of SIDSas regards these determinants on maritime transport,the most relevant mode for overseas trade of SIDS.Economies of scaleLower volumes of trade will empirically lead tohigher freight costs. Smaller vessels are less fuelefficient per unit carried, smaller ports have higheroperating costs per ton of cargo, and investmentsin infrastructure take longer to pay off for smallervolumes of business. Some SIDS have successfullymanaged to become attractive trans-shipmentcentres. Ports in Bahamas, Jamaica and Mauritius,for example, are providing trans-shipment services tocontainer lines. Concentrating cargo in their countrymade it economically viable for larger containerships to call at these countries’ ports, while theports invested in necessary dredging and containerhandling equipment.Trade imbalancesIf ships are not fully loaded on the export leg becausethe country has a merchandise trade deficit, theimporter will de facto also have to pay for the returnjourney of the empty vessel or container. Most SIDSare confronted with huge trade imbalances, andconsequently for most SIDS import freight costs arehigher than export freights.To reduce imbalances, traders may aim at broadeningthe regional cargo base. One country’s surplus in agiven commodity can be combined with anothercountry’s deficit, so that on average the trade withoverseas trading partners becomes more balanced.Spare export capacity and lower export freight ratesfor containerized trade can be seen as an opportunityeven for cargo not commonly containerized to beexported via liner shipping services.DistanceA location away from main shipping routes andoverseas markets is a major challenge in particular forSIDS in the Indian Ocean and in the Pacific. CaribbeanSIDS are closer to the North American market, andbenefit from lying relatively close to the main East–West and North–South shipping routes that make useof the Panama Canal. But, in general, if fuel costs rise,and if recent trends in liner shipping networks and fleetdeployment continue, the geographical disadvantagefor SIDS may in fact worsen. Closer markets wouldbecome a better option.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2014CompetitionAs ship sizes increase and shipping companies andnetworks grow in size, carriers require ever morecargo to maintain a commercially viable service. Asdiscussed in chapter 2 (see figures 2.6 and 2.7), theaverage container carrying capacity per company orper service continues to grow. Opening up nationalor regional cabotage markets allowing internationalliner companies and regional carriers to combineinternational and national traffic may provide shipperswith alternative options and higher frequencies. Itmay also help carriers to reduce the number of emptyreturns. As long as some level of competition exists,some of these cost savings will be passed on to theclient through lower freight costs.Port characteristicsThe costs of shipping depend also on the efficiencyof the ports of call. Seaports need to be dredged toaccommodate ever larger ships, and to have their ownship-to-shore container cranes, given that ever fewernew vessels are today built with their own gear (seealso figure 2.3). Long waiting times for ships, or lengthycustoms clearance procedures also empirically lead tohigher maritime freight costs.E. LINER SHIPPING CONNECTIVITY1. Data on liner shipping connectivityin small island developing StatesA country’s participation in global trade alsodepends on its effective access to frequent andreliable transport services, that is, its shippingconnectivity. The available data suggest that SIDSare confronted with serious challenges concerningtheir connectivity.From the 2014 UNCTAD LSCI, it can be seenthat most SIDS are among the least-connectedeconomies covered by the index (UNCTADstat,2014). Looking in more detail at the componentsfrom which the LSCI is generated (table 6), it canbe seen that practically all SIDS are served byfewer container shipping companies, providingfewer services, with fewer and smaller ships thanthe world average. As regards vessel sizes, forexample, several SIDS accommodate ships withless than 1,000 TEUs of container carrying capacity,far below the 7,076-TEU average for the rest of the

CHAPTER 6: SUSTAINABLE FREIGHT TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT AND FINANCETable 6.111Container-ship fleet deployment for selected island economies, May 2014TEU carryingcapacityLargest ship 1116219CountryAntigua and BarbudaCape VerdeComorosDominicaNumber of ShipsNumber ofcompaniesNumber of 097017Maldives512871276432Marshall n RepublicIcelandJamaicaKiribatiMauritiusMicronesia, Federated States of3123741811Papua New GuineaPalau29346462546821Saint Kitts and Nevis5286466033141018812845794988112246Saint LuciaSaint Vincent and the GrenadinesSamoa772291304411Sao Tome and Principe56757216922Seychelles1021723276438Solomon Islands2225165208263650491043312Trinidad and 291304411American SamoaAruba78676200847Bermuda3100236232Cayman ench PolynesiaFaeroe Islands19457793820817Guam1524804278148New Caledonia2648917275872416674900170762090Average rest of the WorldSource: Compiled by the UNCTAD secretariat, on the basis of data supplied by Lloyds List Intelligence.

REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2014112Figure 6.4. Liner Shipping Connectivity Index, selected Caribbean SIDS, Saint LuciaGrenada15Antigua and Barbuda10Saint Vincent and theGrenadinesSaint Kitts and 220132014Source: UNCTAD secretariat, based on data provided by Lloyds List Intelligence. See http://stats.unctad.org/lsci (accessed6 October 2014) for the LSCI for all countries.Figure 6.5. Liner Shipping Connectivity Index, selected Indian Ocean SIDS, 0132014Source: UNCTAD secretariat, based on data provided by Lloyds List Intelligence. See http://stats.unctad.org/lsci (accessed6 October 2014) for the LSCI for all countries.

CHAPTER 6: SUSTAINABLE FREIGHT TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT AND FINANCE113Figure 6.6. Liner Shipping Connectivity Index, selected SIDS and other island economies of the Pacific Ocean,2004–201435LSCIFiji30Papua New GuineaGuam25Solomon IslandsVanuatu20American Samoa15SamoaTonga10Marshall IslandsKiribati5Federated Statesof 32014Source: UNCTAD secretariat, based on data provided by Lloyds List Intelligence. See http://stats.unctad.org/lsci (accessed6 October 2014) for the LSCI for all countries.world, or the 18,270-TEU vessels deployed on themain East–West services. In addition, more thanhalf of the SIDS covered in table 6 are served byfewer than five companies. Such a small number ofservice providers suggests that there may exist a riskof oligopolistic markets (Wilmsmeier and Hoffmann,2008). In addition, it is likely that diseconomies ofscale, in combination with low levels of competition,will lead to higher freight costs (see section B).To complement the data for 2014 provided in table 6,figures 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 illustrate LSCI trends overthe last 10 years for selected SIDS and other islandeconomies in the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean, andthe Pacific. Between 2004 and 2014, the globalaverage LSCI increased by 50 per cent from 16.8 to25 index points, while the LSCI of SIDS has largelyremained stagnant. Exceptions are those countrieswhose ports have been able to position themselvesas global or regional trans-shipment centres, suchas Bahamas, Jamaica and Mauritius. These threecountries not only have a higher LSCI than theirneighbours, but also report a higher positive growth,roughly in line with the global trend.2. Determinants of liner shippingconnectivityThe position of a country within the global linershipping network depends largely on four factors: itsgeographical position, its captive cargo base, its portcharacteristics and the regulatory framework for theliner shipping market. These four determinants will bebriefly discussed in this section.Geographical positionLying close to the main shipping routes or next toa large trading nation makes it easier for a port toattract liner companies and become a port of call. TheCaribbean islands, for example, are closer to the mainEast–West and North–South routes than most SIDS inthe Indian Ocean or the Pacific.Port characteristicsShipping lines will be more inclined to connect acountry’s ports to their global liner network if they canrely on modern infrastructure and efficient operations.

114This issue is also closely linked to the determinantsof transport cost discussed above. If the port isconsidered to be costly from the carrier’s perspective,the carrier will also skip it and not call, or increase itsfreight charges to the shipper.Shipping marketsEspecially for SIDS with several islands and ports,or neighbouring SIDS where different islands maybe close to seaports in a neighbour’s territory, itmay be convenient to allow foreign countries toconnect these ports and not be limited by any marketrestrictions. An example that proved to be successfulin improving the country’s global connectivity andreduce its maritime freight costs is New Zealand. Byliberalizing the cabotage between the northern andthe southern island, international shipping lines wereable to combine international services with cabotageservices. This has made it attractive to deploy moreships on more frequent services than before, when theinter-island trade was reserved for national-flaggedcompanies.F. DISASTER-RISK REDUCTION ANDCLIMATE-CHANGE ADAPTATIONBy essence, the geographical location and topologicalfeatures of SIDS are particularly susceptible to theimpacts of natural hazards and climate change. Theseinclude strong winds; heavy rainfall; storm surges andwave action from hurricanes, cyclones or typhoons;and rupturing of the earth’s surface, ground failureand induced damage from earthquakes, volcaniceruptions and tsunamis. Small island developingStates are also vulnerable to hazards of human originsuch as maritime oil spills.In the medium term, SIDS will face changes intemperature and precipitations associated with theEl Niño–Southern Oscillation cycle. This will not onlyaffect the Pacific, but will also have an influence onhurricane activity in the Atlantic. In the longer term,SIDS will also be subject to increases in temperature,stronger precipitation and sea-level rise associatedwith climate change. These phenomena will causeinjury and loss of human and animal lives as wellas damage to property and loss of livelihoods.Consequently, there is a need to take measuresthat prevent the hazards from becoming a disaster.While disaster-risk reduction includes a number ofdisciplines (disaster management, mitigation andREVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2014preparedness), this section will focus on mitigation ofthe impact of hazards and climate change on transportinfrastructure.1. Potential impact of hazards andclimate change on transportinfrastructureVarious types of occurrences related to wind andwater phenomena or temperature and seismic eventshave potential impacts on transport infrastructure andservices operation. They can briefly be described asfollows:Water and wind events can arise either from increasedrainfall or the action of the sea, including high tidesand storm surges caused by tropical cyclones andsea level rise. Increased rainfall entails flooding,landslides and land subsidence, which compromisethe integrity of roads, bridges and airport runways.Actions of the sea include coastal flooding, coastalerosion and exposure of the infrastructure toseawater. These, in turn, also inundate roads, portsand airports, erode the infrastructure base, anddisrupt traffic and access.Seismic events, apart from tsunamis, can causedamage to transport infrastructure including crackedroad, seaport and airport pavements; damageto suspended infrastructure including bridges,overpasses, quay decking and their supports;and damage to buildings, communications, trafficmanagement systems, power and liquid fuel storagefacilities, mainly at seaports and airports.Increased temperatures and droughts are associatedwith medium (for example, the El Niño–SouthernOscillation cycle) and long-term changes in climate.The immediate impacts of increased temperatureon transport infrastructure include pavementsoftening and expansion; rutting and potholes;migration of liquid asphalt; heat-related weatheringand buckling of pavement and concrete structures;and the stressing of expansion joints, bridges andpaved surfaces due to thermal expansion. Increasedtemperature and drought can change soil moisturelevels, thereby compromising the integrity of roads.They also lead to increased incidents of forest fireswhich destroy road furniture and reduce visibility,thereby disrupting traffic and affecting access andevacuation routes. Increased drought can alsodestabilize slopes leading to rock fall and landslides,and to land subsidence.

CHAPTER 6: SUSTAINABLE FREIGHT TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT AND FINANCE2. Measures to mitigate the impactof hazards and climate change ontransport infrastructureAs is the case for many other developing countries,SIDS often have no or inadequate policies in placeto address the risks for transport systems stemmingfrom their exposure to natural hazards. In addition,barriers to SIDS adaptation include: Lack of financial resources to implement adaptationmeasures for climate change; Inadequate institutional system and individualcapacity in issues related to climate change; Inadequate public awareness on climate changeand its potential impact on ecosystems and theeconomy; Inadequate training and technology transfer onadaptation and mitigation technologies.3. Actions at the country and regionallevelsUntil recently, countries have been operating under twodifferent United Nations mandates and two differentUnited Nations bodies when dealing with disaster-riskreduction and climate-change adaptation.The implications of this regime have been that, inthe Pacific for example, under disaster-risk reductionthe Pacific Disaster Risk Reduction and DisasterManagement Framework for Action (2005–2015)together with National Adaption Plans have operated;under climate-change adaptation there has beenthe Pacific Regional Framework on Climate Change,National Communications and National AdaptationPlans of Action.In a review undertaken by the United Nations Officefor Disaster Risk Reduction and the United NationsDevelopment Programme, the need to integratedisaster-risk reduction and climate-change adaptationwas recognized, the rationale for integration being: The burden of programmingassistance will be eased;development Duplication of effort and redundancies will beminimized; Potential conflicts in policy development will bereduced; Use of scarce resources will be more efficient;115 There will be increasing recognition, especiallyat community level, that there is little practicaldifference between the two.In fact, some proactive activities had been undertaken,including the development of a Joint National ActionPlan for Climate Change Adaption and Disaster RiskManagement 2010–2015 by Tonga in 2010. Similarplans have been developed by the Cook Islands, theMarshall Islands and Tuvalu.In other regions, SIDS have also been workingtowards joint plans. In the Indian Ocean, for example,Maldives has drafted a Strategic National Action Planfor Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate ChangeAdaptation 2010–2020.In this respect, 10 SIDS have submitted nationaladaptation programmes of action. While most of theproposed projects deal with issues such as waterresources, fisheries, agriculture, health, coral reefrestoration and early warning systems, some deal withprotection of transport infrastructure systems. The CapeVerde project “Integrated protection and management ofcoastal zones”, noted that 80 per cent of the populationwas located in the coastal zone and that “flat islands”such as Sal, Boavista and Maio were the most vulnerable.Amongst the benefits of the project, protection of touristinfrastructure (including airports) was noted. The Kiribatiproject, “Upgrading of coastal defences and causeway”,included as an objective “to prevent encroaching coastalerosion from affecting public infrastructure such as roads,airfields and community public assets by upgradingexisting seawalls”.The Maldives project “Coastal protection of Male’International Airport to reduce the risk from

East Coast of South America. At the same time, these islands are at the intersection between the North– South route linking South and East Africa to Western Asia and South Asia. Current shipping services include (a) SIDS in the Indian Ocean connecting to Asia (North, Central-East, and South-East Asia), (b) the Mediterranean and Australia,

Related Documents:

Moon Island M i lpon dF e Sage Island Sh ep Island Horse Island Oak Island Smith Island B al dHe Is and Brantley Island Mi dle s land Monks sland B u f Island Gr en Swamp A ligator Swamp Swamp Swamp Ash Swamp F a l l S w a m p Ho rs eP n Gr en Sw amp Lewis Swamp Su livan Island Be l Swamp B e av rd m Swamp Royal Oak Roy l Swa mp Oak Swamp St nl .

maritime component of European transport activity in terms of its size and extent and its relation to other modes of transport. This version of the reference manual is an update of the previous Reference Manual on Maritime Transport Statistics (Version December 2014 (2.0)). The manual is divided into four main parts:

LORD HOWE ISLAND. INFORMATION FOR YACHTS AND SMALL CRAFT VISITING LORD HOWE ISLAND WORLD HERITAGE AREA AND LORD HOWE ISLAND MARINE PARK. Prior to departure for Lord Howe Island (LHI), masters of yachts and small craft are advised to contact the designated Lord Howe Island Port Operations Manager, currently the NSW Lord Howe Island Police

maritime archaeology there is no clear-cut definition but overlapping designations. Maritime archaeology falls within the umbrella of underwater archaeology4 that particularly focuses on the preservation and reconstruction of maritime cultural heritage. 'Maritime archaeology,'

Key-Words: - Automatic maritime surveillance, ship detection, maritime traffic, maritime security. 1 Introduction Maritime surveillance had a major evolution with the improvement of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images that can be acquired day and night, on all weather conditions, [1]. Until very recently, those

Transport Management System of Nepal Nepalese transport management is affected by existing topographical condition of the country. Due to this only means of transport used in the country are road transport and air transport. In this paper only road transport is discussed. During the Tenth Plan period, the vehicle transport management

the current scenario among the AMSs and highlights the major issues that need an attention to improve the transport performance in AMSs. With the purpose of easy understating, comparisons and review of current status, the chapter is divided by sectors in 4 sections i.e. Land Transport, Air Transport, Maritime Transport and Transport Facilitation.

REVIE OF MARITIME TRANSORT 2018 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Review of Maritime Transport 2018 was prepared by UNCTAD under the coordination of Jan Hoffmann, with administrative support and formatting by Wendy Juan, and the overall guidance of Shamika N. Sirimanne.