Children With Speech Sound Disorders At School: Challenges .

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Australian Journal of Teacher EducationVolume 42 Issue 2Article 62017Children with Speech Sound Disorders at School:Challenges for Children, Parents and TeachersGraham R. DanielCharles Sturt University, gdaniel@csu.edu.auSharynne McLeodCharles Sturt University, smcleod@csu.edu.auRecommended CitationDaniel, G. R., & McLeod, S. (2017). Children with Speech Sound Disorders at School: Challenges for Children, Parents and Teachers.Australian Journal of Teacher Education, his Journal Article is posted at Research Online.http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ajte/vol42/iss2/6

Australian Journal of Teacher EducationChildren with Speech Sound Disorders at School:Challenges for Children, Parents and TeachersGraham R. DanielSharynne McLeodCharles Sturt UniversityAbstract: Teachers play a major role in supporting children’seducational, social, and emotional development although may beunprepared for supporting children with speech sound disorders.Interviews with 34 participants including six focus children, theirparents, siblings, friends, teachers and other significant adults in theirlives highlighted challenges for these children in school, andchallenges for their parents and teachers in meeting these children’sdevelopmental and educational needs. These challenges were centredon the need for specific expertise in the school setting, and access toadditional classroom and professional services to support thesestudents’ engagement in the learning and social environments ofschool. This research identifies frustrations that impact these familiesand teachers as they attempt to navigate the bureaucracies to whichthey are beholden.IntroductionThe early years of schooling are a significant time in children’s development, withimplications for their educational achievement, future lives, and society (Grunewald &Rolnick, 2007). According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1994),children experience the world within a series of nested spheres of influence, or systems, thatprovide the contexts in which the child develops. These systems extend outward from theimmediate relationships the child experiences with family and friends (microsystem), to theirrelationship with others in their neighbourhood and community (exosystem), and theirexperiences in broader society (macrosystem). The systems interrelate with each other, andthe child experiences bidirectional relationships of influence within each sphere. Themesosystem represents the network of relationships between those in the microsystem whowork to meet the needs of the developing child, and provide support for families in thisendeavour. Along with other professionals, teachers form part of this mesosystem, providinga resource and source of support in meeting the child’s educational and developmental needs.While most children are competent communicators by school-age, some do not havespeech and language skills that are equivalent to their peers (McLeod & McKinnon, 2007).For these children, their speech and language competence can limit their engagement withothers in social and learning environments (Botting & Conti-Ramsden, 2000; McCormack,McLeod, McAllister & Harrison, 2009; McCormack, Harrison, McLeod, & McAllister, 2011;McLeod, Daniel & Barr, 2013). Article 29 of the United Nations (UN) statement on TheAims of Education, originally adopted in 2001, identifies that the goal of schooling is to“empower the child by developing his or her skills, learning and other capacities, humandignity, self-esteem and self-confidence” (UN, 2001). The provision of high qualityVol 42, 2, February 201781

Australian Journal of Teacher Educationeducation that promotes the holistic development of the individual, then, is an importantfunction of schools. In achieving the goals of these conventions, the UN identifies thateducational programs need to “.ensure inclusive and equitable quality education andpromote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UNESCO, 2015, n.p.). That is, teachers needto be prepared with the understandings and skills required to provide learners with relevantlearning experiences, in an educational environment that supports the development of allchildren’s “.personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential”(UN, 2001, n.p.).In meeting the aims of education and the principles of inclusion underpinning theUnited Nations and UNESCO statements, school systems need to ensure the availability ofresources required to support children’s learning needs, and teachers need to be aware of theeducational needs of students. Teachers from a range of countries including the UnitedKingdom and Australia have reported that meeting the needs of children with speech andlanguage difficulties is particularly challenging (Dockrell & Lindsay, 2001; Marshall, Ralph& Palmer, 2002; McLeod & McKinnon, 2010). For example, teachers of 14,533 Australianstudents indicated that of “the nine areas of additional learning need, presence of acommunication disorder was the most important predictive factor of teachers’recommendation that primary or secondary students required a high level of support atschool” (McLeod & McKinnon, 2010, p. 123). Teachers have indicated that they requireadditional professional development to close gaps in their knowledge, and additional supportto meet the needs children of children with speech and language disorders (Dockrell &Lindsay, 2001).The research reported here applied qualitative research methods to investigate thelearning and schooling experiences of a sample of children with speech sound disorders inorder to better inform parents, teachers and other professionals who may be involved insupporting their education and development. The research was conducted in an Australianstate where speech-language pathology services were not provided within schools, and manyof the children’s needs were not deemed to be severe enough to access other educationalfunding or support services.Children with Speech Sound DisordersChildren with speech sound disorders have difficulties with the production ofintelligible speech and “can have any combination of difficulties with perception, production, and/or representation of speech that may impact speech intelligibility andacceptability of both known (e.g., Down syndrome, cleft lip and palate) and presentlyunknown origin” (International Expert Panel on Multilingual Children’s Speech, 2012, p. 1).The term speech sound disorders is used widely, and encompasses the termsspeech/articulation/phonology delay/disorder/impairment as well as childhood apraxia ofspeech (McLeod & Baker, 2017). An international meta-analysis has identified “speechdelay” as affecting between 2.3% and 24.6% of children (Law, Boyle, Harris, Harkness &Nye, 2000). In the US 74.7% of 6,624 Pre-K students across 25 states enrolled in educationbased programs were receiving speech-language pathology services for“articulation/intelligibility” (Mullen & Schooling, 2010). In Australia 12.0% of 4- to 5-yearold children were identified with speech that was “not clear to others” (McLeod & Harrison,2009) and 3.4% of 4-year-olds were clinically identified as having speech sound disorders(Eadie et al., 2015). A community study of Australian preschool children found 51.4% ofchildren with clinically identified speech sound disorders had not received specialist targetedservices (McLeod, Harrison, McAllister & McCormack, 2013).Vol 42, 2, February 201782

Australian Journal of Teacher EducationChildren with speech sound disorders are more likely to have reduced social andeducational outcomes than typically developing children (Felsenfeld, Broen & McGue, 1992;1994; McCormack et al., 2009). For example, these children are at increased risk fordifficulties with reading (Anthony, Aghara, Dunkelberger, Anthony, Williams & Zhang,2011; Leitão & Fletcher, 2004; McLeod et al., 2017) and are more likely to require additionalsupport at school (Felsenfeld et al., 1994). Children with speech sound disorders experiencefrustration (McCormack, McLeod, McAllister & Harrison, 2010) and are more likely to bebullied (Sweeting & West, 2001). They have been reported as experiencing the world in twosignificantly different ways, being at ease when at the home or when with those close tothem, while being more reserved and withdrawn when in public spaces (McLeod, Daniel &Barr, 2013).Children with speech sound disorders benefit from targeted interventions to increasetheir ability to produce speech sounds, resulting in increased intelligibility and acceptabilitywithin social situations. Over 40 interventions have been demonstrated to be effective inameliorating speech sound disorders (Baker & McLeod, 2011). Most focus on children’sproduction and classification of speech sounds and most require ongoing specialistintervention from a speech-language pathologist. Speech-language pathology services areintegrated into children’s educational programs in countries such as the US (Giangreco,Prelock & Turnbull, 2010) and the UK (Department for Education, 2008). However, there arelimited speech-language pathology services in many Australian schools (Commonwealth ofAustralia, 2014; McLeod, Press & Phelan, 2010) and parents have indicated difficultiesaccessing specialist support their children in education and health settings (McAllister,McCormack, McLeod, & Harrison, 2011; Ruggero, McCabe, Ballard & Munro, 2012). Evenwithin the UK, where specialist services are available in schools, access to appropriateservices can be difficult. For example, Paradice and Adewusi (2002) interviewed 51 parentsin the UK about support provided by teachers and speech-language pathologists within theeducational context and summarized their findings by saying “the education provided fortheir children depended not so much on ‘need’ as on luck and how hard they could fight fortheir children” (p. 257).Children’s frustrations with communication in public settings, strategies childrenadopt to assist in communicating with others, and avoidant behaviours including withdrawalin public environments have been reported previously (McLeod, Daniel & Barr, 2013). Inthat study, parents reported that in public contexts, they needed to be protective of theirchildren in response to the reactions of others, particularly in relation to their children’s socialand emotional wellbeing. The paper also reported the frustrations experienced by parents inaccessing speech-language services in the Australian health context. Parents reported a lackof accessible publicly funded services and long waiting lists for both public and privatespeech pathology. The impacts on families and siblings of children with speech sounddisorders have also been reported in papers by Daniel and McLeod (2011), and Barr,McLeod, and Daniel (2008). In the current paper we focus specifically on education andschooling related experiences of these children and their families, and the implications forteachers and teacher educators.Learning in Contemporary ClassroomsLearning in contemporary western education systems emphasises constructivistlearning principles which mobilise student interaction, predominantly through spokencommunication, as a central tool for learning. Based on the works of Lev Vygotsky(1934/1986), constructivist learning is described as “.being embedded within social events,Vol 42, 2, February 201783

Australian Journal of Teacher Educationand occurring as a child interacts with people, objects, and events in the environment” (p.287). Exploratory talk between students, and students and teacher, is acknowledged for “.itscapacity to promote intellectual development and educational attainment has gatheredmomentum in recent years as various studies have demonstrated the key role socialcollaboration plays in the joint construction of knowledge, understanding and learning”(Gillies, 2014, p. 63). Implemented in group-learning processes, such as cooperative learningpedagogies, contemporary classrooms engage these constructivist principles in the learningenvironment, with classroom talk forming a crucial role in these interactions (Johnson,Johnson & Holubec, 2008; Slavin, 2011).Language, including an emphasis on oral language, then, is privileged inconstructivist learning and teaching (Gillies, 2014; Mercer, 2008), and central to learning incontemporary classrooms (Eke & Lee, 2008). The engagement of spoken language in acentral pedagogical role in the learning environment means that children with speech sounddisorders may face particular challenges. An understanding of these challenges is thereforeimportant for those supporting learning engagement and educational outcomes of childrenwith speech sound disorders in contemporary classrooms.AimsCurrent research in the area of speech sound disorders is mainly focused on theefficacy of intervention strategies for use by speech-language pathologists (Baker & McLeod,2011). Research in the school context is necessary for informing the development ofclassroom practices that promote a positive learning environment and provide learningexperiences that enable inclusion of children with these needs. This research aimed toinvestigate the learning and schooling experiences of children with speech sound disorders inorder to identify ways in which parents, teachers and other professionals might support thesechildren’s functioning and learning in schools in a context where speech-language pathologyservices are not integrated within the educational system. Specifically, what can educatorslearn about the schooling experiences of children with speech sound disorders?Methodology and MethodsParticipant RecruitmentFollowing approval from the Charles Sturt University Human Research EthicsCommittee, potential focus children were identified using purposive sampling. Purposivesampling provides the researchers with participants who have a deep knowledge orexperience of the focus of study (Oliver, 2006; Patton, 1990). Potential participants wereselected to provide “the most relevant and plentiful” data that could only be attained fromindividuals with first-hand experience (Yin, 2011, p. 88). In this research, parents of the focuschildren self-identified as being suitable participants by contacting the researchers followingmedia publicity. Additionally, potential participants were identified through contact withfamilies who were already known to the researchers.ParticipantsThe participants in this research were six focus children with speech sound disorders(5 males and 1 female), along with their parents (n 8), siblings (n 6), friends (n 6), oneof the children’s cousins, and a significant adult in the focus children’s lives (2 grandparentsVol 42, 2, February 201784

Australian Journal of Teacher Educationand one family friend), all nominated by the focus children’s parents (see Table 1). Three ofthe children’s teachers agreed to be interviewed for this research following consent from thechild’s parents. Thus, a total of 34 participants (six focus children and 28 family, friends andteachers) took part in the research (see McLeod, Daniel & Barr, 2013). The sample isreflective of children with speech sound disorders; the predominance of boys in our sample isreflective of the significantly higher proportion of boys compared with girls diagnosed withspeech sound disorders (McLeod et al., 2017). In this paper we draw on interviews with thechildren, parents and the three teachers to focus specifically on the schooling relatedexperiences of the six focus children.The six focus children were all in the early years of formal schooling, aged between 5and 9 years of age. All of the focus children were identified by their parents and verified by aspeech-language pathologist as having speech sound disorders of unknown origin, and ofvarying severity from mild to severe. Three also had mild hearing loss or languageimpairments. None were identified as having a cognitive disability. Pseudonyms are used toprotect their identity (see Tab. 1).ChildrenJamesSexMaleAge6yearsoldArea(s) of difficultyMild speech sounddisorder (particulardifficulty producingmultisyllabic words) andmoderate expressivelanguage impairmentInterestsPlaying computergames, playing withfriends, construction andsportSignificant othersMother, Brother(aged 8), Brother(aged 2), Friend(aged 6), TeacherPaulMale6yearsoldModerate speech sounddisorder and a mildexpressive languageimpairmentMother , Father,Brother (aged 11),Friend (aged 6),Family friend (adult)LucieFemale9yearsoldMild speech sounddisorder particularly with/s/ consonant clusters ictorMale8yearsoldSeverely unintelligiblespeech (suspectedchildhood apraxia ofspeech)Moderate speech sounddisorder, severe receptivelanguage delay, moderateexpressive language delay,and mild stutterModerately unintelligiblespeech (suspectedchildhood apraxia ofspeech)Construction, art,playing computer games,playing with his friends,imaginative play, andmathsArt/drawing, playingwith friends, playingcomputer games,imaginative play andsportDrawing, shopping,construction, playingwith his friend and sportComputer games, sportand imaginative playMother, Friend(aged 9), Friend(aged 8)Mother, Sister (aged14), Grandmother,Cousin, Friend ,TeacherMother, Father,Sister (twin),Grandmother, Friend(aged 8), TeacherPlaying with his brothers Mother, Brotherand friends,(aged 12), Brotherconstruction, and(aged 9)playing computer games,handwriting, math andsportTable 1: Children with speech sound disorder and their significant others.InstrumentsQualitative research uses semi-structured interviews to gather rich descriptions ofparticipants’ experiences and the meanings they make of these experiences to develop anVol 42, 2, February 201785

Australian Journal of Teacher Educationunderstanding of the phenomenon as a human experience (Seidman, 2013). The role of theinterviewer is to encourage a detailed description of the participants’ experiences and theirreflections on these experiences by remaining neutral and non-directive, listening attentivelyto what is being said, and asking open ended questions that prompt richer responses fromresearch participants (Seidman, 2013).Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with participants who hadlived experience in relation to children with speech sound disorders. Semi-structuredinterviews use questions to stimulate free-flowing conversation, encouraging participants todiscuss experiences and observations relating to the area of research focus (McMillan, 2008).Interview questions for this research were based on questions provided in the SpeechParticipation and Activity Assessment of Children (SPAA-C) (McLeod, 2004). The SPAA-Cprovides a series of questions for researchers and other professionals to use in interviews tobetter understand the experiences of children who have difficulty speaking, “and the contextsin which they live” (McLeod, 2004, p. 79). Different questions are provided within theSPAA-C for children, siblings, friends, parents, teachers, and others. For example, thequestions to friends includes “What do you like doing together?” and “Is there anything yourfriend has trouble with?” The SPAA-C questions are based around the World HealthOrganization’s concept of Activities and Participation (WHO, 2001), and the SPAA-C haspreviously been applied for use by speech-language pathologists in understanding the impactof children’s speech and language difficulties on their lives (McCormack et al., 2011).In addition to the interviews, the focus children completed a pictorial Likert scalequestionnaire, also drawn from the SPAA-C, to rate their feelings and perceptions in relationto the impact of speech sound disorders in different aspects of their lives, for example: “Howdo you feel about your talking? ?” To avoid altering their existing relationships,interviews with other child participants focused on the str

Australian Journal of Teacher Education Volume 42 Issue 2 Article 6 2017 Children with Speech Sound Disorders at School: Challenges for Children, Parents and Teachers Graham R. Daniel Charles Sturt University, gdaniel@csu.edu.au Sharynne McLeod Charles Sturt University, smcleod@csu.edu.au This Journal Article is posted at Research Online.

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