Not Too Well-known Predecessors Of C. R. Rogers's .

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Universal Journal of Educational Research 6(4): 619-628, 2018DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2018.060405http://www.hrpub.orgNot too Well-known "Predecessors" of C. R. Rogers'sHumanistic Pedagogy (J. A. Comenius, J. I. Felbiger,J. F. Herbart, O. Chlup) Radim ŠtěrbaDepartment of Civics, Faculty of Education, Masaryk University Brno, the Czech RepublicCopyright 2018 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access underthe terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International LicenseAbstract The paper deals with the analysis of theworks of selected pedagogical thinkers in relation to thehumanistic pedagogy of C.R. Rogers. The aim of thepaper is to identify the components of humanisticpedagogy - Person Centred Education (PCE) inpedagogical theories that were created prior to the PCE.Based on the content analysis, we tried to identify thecentral components of PCE - empathy, authenticity andacceptance in pedagogical concepts of significantpedagogical thinkers. We focused on selected pedagogicalthinkers who lived in Central European space from thefirst half of the 17th century until the first half of the 20thcentury. In particular, such thinkers were selected whowere ideally close to the PCE bases influenced byEuropean humanism - J. A. Comenius (Komenský) andhis lesser known successor J. I. Felbiger, German thinkerJ. F. Herbart and later O. Chlup influenced bypedocentrism. The above-mentioned authors dealt withthe subject of teacher empathy, at Comenius we even havethe technique of active listening, and we also findauthenticity and acceptance. We can say that these centralcomponents of PCE had been used in pedagogical theoriesto varying degrees before the PCE was established. Inaddition to enriching and modifying contemporarypedagogical theory, the article also aims inspire interest inpedagogical thinkers of past centuries who have dealt withsimilar problems in our theories that we are dealing withtoday. Thanks to this thematically defined reflection of thementioned pedagogical theories, we can get inspirationalinsights into some of the problems of contemporarypedagogical theory and practice.KeywordsHumanisticEmpathy, Active ListeningPedagogy,Predecessor,1. IntroductionAcceptance, authenticity and empathy are the key pillarsof the therapist's approach to the client within thepsychotherapeutic direction, which was called a personcentered approach (PCA, see [1]). Since the 1960s, thePCA has gradually moved into education and transformedinto a human-oriented education [1, 2]. According to thesewidespread facts, teacher's approach to pupils, based onAcceptance, Authenticity and Empathy (AAE), originatedfirst in the mentioned psycho-therapeutic direction (PCA)to be later used in the school environment within the PCE.We believe that this widespread knowledge is at leastinaccurate. In our article we will try to prove that thesecomponents of access to the other (AAE) do not originatein Rogers's PCE but have been more or less defined muchearlier within the framework of Central Europeanpedagogy. We will try to prove that some of the pedagogictheoreticians in their concepts discovered a few centuriesearlier the Rogers's theoretical concept, which then had tobe "re-discovered". 1To indicate the direction that incorporated into thepedagogical contexts the ideas of humanistic psychology,especially Maslow and Rogers, can be used the termhumanistic pedagogy [3]. However, this is not the onlyname of this direction. Bertrand incorporated Rogers'sconcept into the stream of personalistic educationaltheories. The common central idea for these theories is tofocus on the personality of the pupil, who is to be thestarting point of the educational process. He was inspired1 For this reason, the "re-discovered" author has not found any inspirationfrom these predecessors in the PCA literature. Based on a literature search,it was found that there are also no more comprehensive Czechpedagogical works that would be deeper into the subject of teacherempathy. Mentions of its importance can be found in studies dealing withthe topic of teacher competencies - the social competence of the teacher,see R. Štěrba in summary. Empathy as part of the teacher's socialcompetence, Quality Reflection in Doctoral Pedagogical Research:Reviewed Proceedings of the Doctoral Conference held on 21 May 2012in Prague, Prague, pp. 9-20, 2012.

620Not too Well-known "Predecessors" of C. R. Rogers's Humanistic Pedagogy(J. A. Comenius, J. I. Felbiger, J. F. Herbart, O. Chlup)by pedocentric-oriented theories of the early twentiethcentury (Bertrand mentions Montessori and Neill, see [4]).Bertrand then included "Rogers's pedagogy" in so-callednon-direct education within pedocentric theories, [4]. Thispoints to the original designation of Rogers's therapeuticconcept, the rejection of the traditional directive approachto the patient. Rogers's approach was based on a facilitatingtherapist who is only a guide and support provider forself-discovery of the client [5]. As Singler notes, Rogersput this non-directivity into school practice and named it "apupil-centered approach - PCE," see [6].In this approach, the teacher should trust the pupil'snatural ability to learn and explore. He should support thenatural tendency of the positive direction of human being,who seeks to realize his or her inner potential (his or herpotentiality). Realizing potencialities then means movingtowards full humanity. To developing the potentiality,Rogers added that an individual tends not to develop all assumptions to self-defeating). These are only updated forthe organism under unfavorable conditions [7].The aim of the teacher in school teaching is to facilitate,to support what Rogers called the so-called significantlearning (elsewhere, also significant learning, experiencelearning). It is "learning that is more than justaccumulation of facts. It is a learning that brings about achange in man's behavior . in his attitudes andpersonality." [8].According to Rogers, the content of learning (here inparticular learning of facts) is rather second-class learning.The pupil should learn mainly the proces of learning. Inorder to realize this important learning, appropriateconditions must be created. Rogers noted that support forsignificant learning is not related to curricula, academicknowledge, audio-visual aids etc. Supporting this learningdepends mainly on the character of attitudes that are in therelationship between the teacher and his or her pupils. Thebasis is the positive relationship between the teacher andhis or her pupil based on mutual understanding and respect[9].Here, teacher s empathy, understanding, associated withactive listening takes its central place. An integral part ofempathy is also the expression, verbalisation of empathy(so-called active listening). Only then the expressedempathy can be therapeutically effective when the clientrealizes that the other side really understands it. Of course,empathy also manifests itself without words, in mimics,tone of voice and gesture in which we express ourunderstanding [2].This is associated with teacher's personality, that is, byhis or her congruence, acceptance, and empathy (AAE). Inthis context, however, it is necessary to assume that thepupil should at least partially perceive these three aspects authenticity, acceptance, empathy (AAE). In the case ofempathy, therefore, it is mainly expressed empathy ininterpersonal communication - active listening [8].The teacher, with the help of AAE, has to lead the pupilto discover his or her inner potential, self-realization andself-actualization.Rogers tried to describe the congruent aspects of theteacher. An authentic (congruent) teacher is the one whoaccepts his or her own real feelings, such as experiencingenthusiasm at his or her favorite subjects or topics,boredom on subjects / topics less favourite [8]. Let us addthat congruence is associated with self-empathy, when anindividual can listen to himself or herself, to his or heractual experience.However, authenticity should always be appropriate tothe situation. Of course, the teacher should alwaysencourage pupils' interest rather than discourage them inany way. In relation to Rogers's example, even according tohis conception, the congruence should be appropriate to thesituation. He or she certainly should not hide his or herauthentic enthusiasm in the discussed topic. However, withregard to boredom, we think he or she should notartificially pretend to be enthusiastic about something he orshe does not like (it certainly would not be authentic). Heor she should not also express boredom by his attitude,expression. The teacher should be aware that the themesare needed and interesting in some ways. He or she shouldstrive to go deep and find something interesting for himselfor herself and for pupils [10].Upon acceptance, the teacher should try to accept thepupil as he or she is and should try to understand his or herfeelings. In order for this to happen, it is necessary to createsuch an environment. An environment in which thesefeelings could be openly expressed without fear [8].Understanding means understanding the pupil's interior.Here Rogers pointed out that it is not about evaluatingunderstanding, i. e. the understanding that is associatedwith the assessment attitude. This empathic understanding,which must be expressed in order for the pupil to perceiveit [9]. Thus, empathic teacher not only empathize with hisor her pupils, but also expresses his or her understanding incommunication.In addition to his or her empathic approach to the pupil,the teacher, as we have already said, is also congruent andaccepting. On the basis of this complex approach, apositive atmosphere of mutual trust is created, in whichpupil s self-development can take place. In this positiveclimate, the pupils will be themselves, they will be happyto learn.From this it is evident that Rogers placed a greatemphasis on teacher, especially his or her ability ofempathy, authenticity and acceptance, which are aprerequisite for creating the corresponding atmosphere inthe classroom [3].2. ObjectivesThe main objective is to identify the elements of

Universal Journal of Educational Research 6(4): 619-628, 2018humanistic pedagogy - PCE, empathy, acceptance andauthenticity of the teacher, in selected importantpedagogical theories created before the establishment ofthe PCE. On this basis, we can then provide a morecomprehensive overview of empathy, acceptance, andauthenticity as specific components of the teacher'sapproach, also about their development and positionwithin the given pedagogical concept. Therefore, centralresearch questions for which we will seek the answer are: Are the teacher's empathy, acceptance andauthenticity discussed in selected pedagogicalconcepts? What is the position of teacher's empathy,acceptance and authenticity in selectedpedagogical theories? How did their concepts of these theories evolvefurther?3. MethodsThe basic methodological basis, based on the nature ofthe studied material, is content analysis of documents,which is a standard approach in quantitative andqualitative research [11, 12]. According to Hendl,everything written can be considered as a document, iebooks, newspaper articles, etc. The advantage of thisapproach is that the data contained in the documents is notexposed to the sources of errors that arise from otherresearch methods (observation, interview - the presence ofa researcher influencing the object being investigated)where the subjectivity of the researcher also does not playa role in relation to the information contained in thedocument. When analyzing text documents, the researchercannot intervene in the content of these documents, norchange them. Thus, the possibility of distortion is limited,and anyone who works with the material has the samepossibilities [12]. According to Mayring [11, 12, 13] theprocessing process consists of several phases: defining the research question, determining the nature of the document searching for relevant documents, external and internal review of documents, analysis of document interpretation aimed atfinding answers to research questions.3.1. Selection of Pedagogical ConceptsWhen choosing pedagogical concepts, we had two initialcriteria. The first was regional / local, ie. pedagogicalconcepts were created or, if necessary, had a majorinfluence on the development of pedagogical thinking inthe Central European space (today's Czech Republic). Thiscriterion was based on the previous findings (see note 1)and was to find out whether similar topics (empathy,acceptance, authenticity of the teacher (AAE) in such621regionally delineated pedagogical concepts did not occur inthe past, since current pedagogical works do not commenton this theme (see note 1). The second selection criterionwas based on the ideological essence of AAE - theirassociation with humanism. Pedagogical concepts, withwhich empathy, acceptance and authenticity of the teacherare most connected, are based on the humanist ideal ofeducation.It is aimed in particular at developing the personality ofthe pupil, his or her character, leads to social feeling,respect and love to others. The beginnings of humanisticideas within education in pedagogical theory are connectedwith to the onset of Renaissance humanism. Later, they arelinked to the pedocentric tendencies that were at the heartof the pedagogical reformism at the beginning of thetwentieth century.Specific selected personalities of J. A. Comenius, J. I.Felbiger, J. F. Herbart, O. Chlup belong to the main andimportant representatives of the Central Europeanhumanist / reform oriented pedagogy in the CentralEuropean space, as it is mentioned in the literature (see, forexample, [34]).J. A. Comenius (1592-1670) is a prominentrepresentative of the humanistic approach to the world, hisschool should be a "workshop of humanity". In Comeniusliterature Comenius is classified into the era of renaissance,humanism and reformation. There is no doubt that he wasstrongly influenced by the humanistic ideas [14].Comenius found inspiration for his pedagogical work indomestic (eg J. Blahoslav) and foreign predecessors (eg E.Rotterdamský or L. Vives), also with his contemporariesfrom abroad (JV Andreae, W. Ratke [14, 15]).The widening enlightenment brought with it thenecessity to implement school reforms. Their practicalexpression was the General School Regulations of J. I.Felbiger (1724-1788) aiming at the compulsory educationof children aged from six to twelve years.J. F. Herbart (1776-1841) is perhaps one of the mostinfluential representatives of the nineteenth-centurypedagogical theory and, as Cipro states, herbatism inspiredby Herbart prevailed in European and overseas pedagogyeven in the twentieth century [16]. Kádner spoke ofHerbart's humanistic thought, and he openly describedHerbert as the successor and the accomplice of Pestalozzi'sthoughts [17]. Chlup emphasized the humanistic accent ofHerbart's concept [18].O. Chlup himself (1875-1965) was one of the importantrepresentatives of pedagogical reformism in the late 1920sin Czechoslovakia.As key documents in our case we will consider the keyworks of selected pedagogical theoreticians, in which theypresented their concepts: Comenius [19, 20, 21], Felbiger[22], Herbart [23], Chlup [24, 25].In connection with the nature of the documents, there is afundamental internal review of the documents - the content

622Not too Well-known "Predecessors" of C. R. Rogers's Humanistic Pedagogy(J. A. Comenius, J. I. Felbiger, J. F. Herbart, O. Chlup)of the documents and their subsequent interpretation.3.2. Basis for Analysis and InterpretationThe process of interpretation itself is often criticized forsubjectivity. Here, according to Miovsky [12], we muststate that "any more complex text can be analyzed andinterpreted from different angles of view". In this context, itis important for the researcher to make his point of viewexplicit - to set out the starting points - the perspectives, thecriteria by which the text will be judged [12].Our analysis and interpretation of pedagogical concepts,our point of view will be focused on empathy, acceptanceand authenticity of the teacher. To analyze selecteddocuments, we have first defined the criteria for reviewingthe text in advance. This is a review in terms of theoccurrence of the discussion of empathy, the acceptanceand authenticity of the teacher. Here we have focused ontheir essence and manifestations. This is also because, inolder pedagogical theories, these terms do not exist.Teacher s empathy (for more, see Section 1.) can bedefined as understanding the pupil (s), understanding his orher views, experiences, problems that differ from his or herown. In addition, it includes the understanding of his or heremotions and the empathizing with the pupil. The mostprominent manifestations of teacher s empathy includelistening to the pupil connected with the interest in what heor she says. This is the so-called shown empathy, expressedin an attempt to understand the other. The manifestation ofthis understanding takes place in communication throughactive listening, so-called paraphrasing. Here the teacherrepeats in his own words the basic idea the pupil tells him[26]. Next, of course, we focus on similar synonymousconcepts, such as sympathy and empathizing, which wereused instead of the concept of empathy.Acceptance (from the Latin acceptus, kindly accepted,dear) is the acceptance of the other one as he or she is, withregard and respect (see Section 1.). As described by C. R.Rogers himself, this is essentially about the expression ofChristian agape - love, which is also responsible, patientand caring [2]. Love, in the relationship between a teacherand a pupil, can also be called "pedagogical love." Part ofthis effort to understand the other is to create a positiveemotional relationship towards the pupil, which is reflectedin the teacher's positive attitude, kindness, friendliness,leniency, love towards the pupils, which should contributeto the creation of a favorable atmosphere in the educationalprocess. Pedagogical love - acceptance, teacher's relationto the other - the pupil, we will therefore continue toconsider it necessary, accompanying the component ofteacher s empathy.Next, we will focus on authenticity, veracity (see morein Section 1) for self-empathy, listening to oneself. Let usadd that empathy itself and a positive attitude towardsanother must be based on genuine, authentic interest in theother. Within the situation, the teacher must be sufficientlycongruent, authentic.4. Results4.1. The Work of Comenius and Acceptance,Authenticity, Empathy (AAE)Comenius, in his education for humanity, emphasizedthe quality of the relationship between parent and child,teacher and pupil. He pointed out that education should bedone with love and respect for the child's personality,which has to be recognized as best as possible. "Teachers,when they will be friendly and kind, will not repel thepupils with any roughness, but bring them to themselves bytheir fatherly mind . in short, when they treat them withlove, they will easily gain their hearts." [19]. He sought tomake the teacher, based on this knowledge, adapt his or herinterpretation to the level of abilities and understanding ofpupils [14]. Also, in Comenius, "The Latest Method ofLanguages", we find that the teacher should be aware of thepeculiarities of individual pupils: "let the teacher comedown to the pupil and help his understanding in allpossible ways . the teacher does not teach as much as hecan teach, but as many as the pupil can understand . thesoul of teaching is the adaptation of the teaching to thepupil's talents." [20, 27]. This is, according to Čapková, anexemplary example of a psychological empathizing of ateacher with a pupil, which aims to adapt the curriculum toa pupil: "Human nature is adapted so that . all abilitiesseek adequate nutrition. If you deny it, they are sad, theyfail, . but if you do it too dense, then you are harming it .there is a need for caution to properly provide the eye withlight, and there will be everything in the light, whateveryou want." [20, 27].In his treatise on Comenius, Floss also mentions this. Hetalks about Comenius freedom and the nonviolence ofteaching. That is to be adapted to the natural possibilities ofthe pupils. It certainly should not be mugging up, bymechanically pouring knowledge [28].Comenius strongly emphasized the understanding of thecurriculum. The pupil should not only remember the taughtmatter, he criticized the mere memorizing that wascommon in a number of schools at that time. Knowingeverything in the sense of mastering the greatest possibleamount of knowledge on the basis of mere memory did notbecome a goal, but all wisdom. It was about knowing whatis essential, which was connected with the understandingof relations and the context between knowledge [29].Achieving this qualitatively higher level of knowledgeshould be accomplished by a specific repetitive technique.This technique, in a number of aspects, corresponds to amodel of empathy manifested through active listening.During the teaching, the teacher should periodicallyconvince himself or herself of the level of understandingof the subject presented to his or her pupils. He first

Universal Journal of Educational Research 6(4): 619-628, 2018repeats himself, then lets from one to three pupils repeataloud, then the pupils have to repeat quietly and finallyagain aloud [30]. In this paraphrasing of his or herinterpretation by the pupils the teacher is convinced ofhow they understood the topic he had delivered. Thetechnique of active listening that Comenius meant,approaches the most the so-called mirroring. Here, thepupil, in the words of a spokesman, repeats the essentialparts of his or her message. There is a need for selectivity,work with information, not to repeat withoutunderstanding, just "parroting back". It is about choosingwhat the listener himself considers essential from thespeaker's statement. Comenius also certainly did not mean"parroting back" because he was a great critic ofmemorizing, ". parrots who recite someone else sthoughts, not giving away anything that would costanything" [27].What does Comenius say about this: ". when a teacherof every class introduces this wonderful way of practicingamong his disciples in this way: Each lesson he or she willshortly introduce the topic, clearly explain the meaning ofwords, and will obviously show the usefulness of things,then prompt one of the pupils to repeat in the same ordereverything the teacher said in order to clarify the rules inthe same words and point to the same examples . once heor she makes mistake he or she must be corrected. Then hewill call another and will do the same . then the third, thefourth and how many will be needed until it is obvious thatall of them have understood and can do it again andproperly teach . The teacher learns more clearly ifeveryone understands what he has lectured." [19].4.2. Discussion to the Works of ComeniusAs we have already said, and it follows from allComenius philosophy, there is no memorizing here, and"all" here, in our opinion, means everything essential fromthe topic. There was therefore a need for pupil selectivity inrelation to the information transmitted. The emphasis on"the same words", in the words of a spokesperson, is in ourview to enable pupils to acquire a conceptual device relatedto the presented topic, so it is the key concept of the subject(which, of course, he or she understands and can explain).Other characteristics of a good teacher include: to beable to understand the pupils, to understand their abilities,their characteristics, and their individualities andaccordingly to affect the pupil. What else can in this casehelp the teacher more than the ability of empathy?Empathy in this case is directly related to the teacher's lovefor pupils (element of acceptance), the interest for pupils (apossible element of authenticity, not explicitly expressed)through which the "pansofic personality" gradually formsin the pupils. Very inspiring is that empathy, activelistening, is purposefully required from his or her pupils.Indeed, this two-way relationship is suggested, for example,in Didactics analytical "let the teacher and the pupil listen623to each other." [21].The work of Comenius was not very well known in ourcountries; his books were not published until the first halfof the nineteenth century [31]. As Kadner further states, "Itis truly incredible that all the promising beginnings andnew thoughts became empty . In short, the merger of theHumanist and Reformational movement failed religiously,scientifically and nationally . cultivating a single ability memory" [15]. We can say that there is a decline ineducation at that time, the advanced education from thetime before Bílá Hora fell to the lowest level. Teaching wasdone through memorization and primitive imitation withslave discipline. The vast majority of folk masses could notread or write [15].4.3. Felbiger as the Successor of ComeniusAn important Felbiger's action was his methodical book,which was to become an organizational and didactic aid forthe construction of the then Austrian educational system. Itwas first published in German (1775), and two years later itwas translated into Czech. We will come out of its editionfrom 1824, which is written in the Gothic script. This workwas an important aid for many generations of educators formany decades [32]. Felbiger attempted to address the keycomponents of the educational process.For our purposes, there is a key basic rule of teaching, setforth by Felbiger. It is a requirement for the teacher to builda positive attitude towards the pupils and to gain their trust.It emphasizes the teacher's love for all pupils, impartiallyregardless of their status. He encourages the teacher to"show them at every opportunity, in words, faces, all yourbehavior, that you love them with heart", teacher has to begracious, friendly and kind [22]. This requirement, asstated by Uhlířová, for the personality characteristics of ateacher, which encourages him to kind and patient behaviortowards pupils, has inspiration in Comenius's GreatDidactics [33]. Thanks to a kind approach, a positiveclassroom climate is created, in which "teaching will bemuch easier" [22].Of course, the interest in the pupil is part of thisapproach. The teacher should try to get to know thepersonality of his or her pupils [22], how they learn alongwith the degree of their understanding the topic [22]. Inorder to achieve this, the teacher has to observe pupils notonly during the educational process, but also innon-teaching activities [22]. Understanding the pupilsshould consequently lead to an individual approachtowards them "to treat them according to their diversity,for the children are different and the way of dealing withthem must also be different" [22].In the teaching itself, the teacher should try to bring thetopic closer to his pupils, by explaining it. By repeating(not testing), to make sure they understoond it enough.Here he put emphasis on the dialogical method, throughwhich a teacher can learn how a learner understands the

624Not too Well-known "Predecessors" of C. R. Rogers's Humanistic Pedagogy(J. A. Comenius, J. I. Felbiger, J. F. Herbart, O. Chlup)topic. He emphasized the form of a teaching conversation,so-called "catechism", "a constant intercourse between theteacher and the pupils . because it keeps the attention ofthe pupils and constantly employs their memory, leads theteacher to adapt the teaching according to the children'sabilities, facilitates the observation, whether the studentsunderstood him or her and if not.“ [22].Of course, the introduction of Felbiger's ideas (or, aspresented by Felbiger), in their fullness met withdifficulties. The transition to mass teaching itself was aproblem, as there was a great shortage of qualified teachersand textbooks. That is why teachers often taught onlythrough interpretation and dictation [32]. Also, anotherFelbiger's recommendation remained misunderstood, or itwas simplified to such a level that it lacked the originalmeaning. For example, Kadner points to the use of thetabular method [34], which has been reduced to mereformalism, mechanical repetition, dril [35, 36]. Despitethese distortions, however, we can say that some of theideas and practices have come into practice in Czechschools. Felbiger's contemporary and implementer ofenlightenment reforms, F. Kindermann, also had asignificant credit for it.4.4. Discussion to the Works of FelbigerFelbiger, like Comenius, stood up against the literalrepetition - parroting "they never have to learn by heartthings that they do not understand, for what they cannotunderstand can never have enough benefit" [22]. On thecontrary, the teacher had to lead his disciples to expressthemselves in their own words [22].At Felbiger, we have similarity with Comenius by usingrepetition of the teacher's words by pupils. The pupilrepeats in his own words how he understood the teacher'sinterpretation. This way of repeating, however, Felbigertransformed into a system of questions through which theteacher verified the pupil's understanding of the subject.There is not preserved original Comenius model, when therecipient of the communication (the communicant), bymirroring, verified his or her understanding of the ideasfrom the communicator. The aforementioned GeneralSchool Rules in § 44 and § 45, according to Felbiger'sinstructions, devoted the description of catechesis. Here itis stated that "catechesis is understood . the answer by thepupils, when it is possible to know what the pupils thinkabout the topic". [32]. It was during the catecheticalinquiry that the teacher knew how the pupils understoodhim. He was able to identify

earlier the Rogers's theoretical concept, which then had to be "re-discovered". 1 To indicate the direction that incorporated into the pedagogical contexts the ideas of humanistic psychology, especially Maslow and Rogers, can be used the term humanistic pedagogy [3]. However, this is not t

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