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Second EditionLearn everything you need for:The FAA private pilot examBiennial flight reviewsUpdating and refreshing your knowledgeA complete information manual by one of aviation’smost knowledgeable and experienced teachersMore than 1,100 original color illustrations and photos

Table of viAbout the Author.viiPrevious Cover.viiiIntroduction.ix1Chapter One - Pages A1-10Airplane Components:Getting to KnowYour Airplane2Chapter Two - Pages B1-46Aerodynamics:The Wing is the Thing345678910Chapter Three - Pages C1-38Engines:Knowledge of EnginesIs PowerChapter Four - Pages D1-16Electrical Systems:Knowing What’s WattChapter Five - Pages E1-42Flight Instruments:Clocks, Tops and ToysChapter Six - Pages F1-52Federal Aviation Regulations:How FAR Can We Go?Chapter Seven - Pages G1-30Airport Operations:No Doctor NeededChapter Eight - Pages H1-22Radio Operations:Aviation Spoken HereChapter Nine - Pages I1-36Airspace: The Wild Blue,Green and Red YonderChapter Ten - Pages J1-16Aviation Maps:The Art of the Chart11Chapter Eleven - Pages K1-46Radio Navigation:The Frequency Flyer Program12Chapter Twelve - Pages L1-58Understanding Weather:Looking for Friendly Skies13Chapter Thirteen - Pages M1-40Weather Charts and Briefings:PIREPS, Progs and METARS14Chapter Fourteen - Pages N1-54Flight Planning:Getting There From Here15Chapter Fifteen - Pages O1-26Airplane Performance Charts:Know Before You Go16Chapter Sixteen - Pages P1-20Weight and Balance:Let’s Wait and Balance17Chapter Seventeen - Pages Q1-34Pilot Potpourri:Neat Aeronautical InformationEditors.R1, R2Aviation Speakers Bureau.R2Product eviations.R28

Rod Machado’s Private Pilot HandbookPOWER AND CLIMB ANGLE40FullThrottleMBones!Can you giveme morepower?PHFullThrottleC50 MPHBFig. 6A65 MPHEven with fullpower, the car starts toslow down as the hillsteepens. Eventually thecar will come to a stop if thehill becomes too steep. In an airplane,you don't try to climb too steep a hill oryou might slow down to the point whereyour wings can't develop the necessarylift to remain in flight.FullThrottleAN AIRPLANE'S FOUR FORCES IN A CLIMBA90 otof light pathSimilar to the automobile, it is engine thrust (F), not extra lift (A) from the wings, thatpulls an airplane up its "pilot-made" hill. The steeper the angle of climb (the hill) themore the force of weight (B) acts aft (D). Thatportion of the weight (D), acting in thedirection of drag (E), pulls the airplane aftand acts just like drag. Lift (A) still actsopposite the portion of weight (C) thatacts 90 degrees to the flight path(which is also the relative wind).Capteen!Eyee kantgib yahnooo murpawar sewTHRstupUSTaskeen!LiftF90 opHiltor c lontrevaposol)CWeigDhton a level road with full power is 65mph (Car A). As we move up a hill(Car B) our speed drops to 50 mph.An even steeper hill slows the car to40 mph (Car C). The limited horsepower of the car’s engine simply can’tmatch the drag caused by wind resistance plus rearward-acting weight asthe hill steepens, so the car slows. Abigger engine or redesign of the car toproduce less wind resistance are theonly options that will help.The same analysis works, up to apoint, for an airplane attempting toclimb a hill in the air (Figure 7).Let’s say your airplane has a maximum speed of 120 mph in straightand level flight with full throttle(Airplane A). (Airplane throttles aresimilar to automobile throttles exceptthat they’re hand operated. You pushin for more power and pull out forless.) Applying slight back pressureon the elevator control points the airplane’s nose upward (Airplane B).This causes the airplane to climb ashallow hill. The speed decreases toTOTAL WEIGHTy elDRAiftSteede bite l(mat opward acting forces. (If you’re havingtrouble with vectors, see the accompanying sidebar at the bottom of page B3.)Here’s what you’ve been waitingfor: The upward push of the road onthe car (arrow A) is equal to the car’sweight on the road (arrow C). Inother words, lift still equals weight,even in a climb. Part of the weight,however, now acts like drag (arrowD), which really is a drag, because itgets added to the wind resistance. Aswe’ve already learned, thrust is theforce that overcomes drag.The forces acting on an airplaneduring a climb are similar to those ofthe car (Figure 5), the only major difference being that you (the pilot)choose the slope of the hill you climb.This is done using the elevator control in the cockpit (more on the elevator control later).As you can see, it’s excess thrust,not lift, that allows an airplane toclimb. Given this very important bitof knowledge, you’ll now understandwhy smaller airplanes with limitedpower can’t climb at steep angles likethe Blue Angels do at airshows.Let’s go back to the automobileand climb a steep hill (Figure 6). Themaximum forward speed of our carWeighB4GEBFig. 580 mph just as it did in the car.Attempting to climb a steeper hill(Airplane C) slows our speed down to70 mph. We can’t climb the hill wejust selected faster than 70 mphbecause we don’t have the extrahorsepower (thrust) to do so.As we continue to steepen theangle of climb, our airspeed decreasesfurther, just like the car’s speed did.Here, however, is where the airplanegoes its own way. Airplanes need tomaintain a minimum forward speedfor their wings to produce the liftrequired to stay airborne. Ever wonder why airplanes need runways?Same reason long jumpers do.Airplanes (and long jumpers) mustattain a certain speed before they cantake flight.This minimum forward speed iscalled the stall speed of the airplane.It’s a very important speed thatchanges with variations in weight,flap setting, power setting and angleof bank. It also varies among airplanes (no need to worry because

Chapter 2 - Aerodynamics: The Wing is the Thinglater I’ll show you how to recognizewhen you’re near a stall). As long asthe airplane stays above its stallspeed, enough lift is produced tocounter the airplane’s weight and theairplane will fly.If the stall speed of Airplane C(Figure 7) is 60 mph, then climbingat a slightly steeper angle will resultin insufficient lift for flight. We callthis condition a stall. Done unintentionally, it leads to such primitive linguistic sounds as “Uh-oh,” “yipes,”“ahhhhh,” as well as “I think I needto have my chakras balanced.” Needless to say, these sounds make passengers reluctant to ever fly with youagain. This is why some of your timeas a student pilot will be spent finding out about stalls, and doing them(intentionally, that is). Instructorshave special biological filtersinstalled that keep them from making these sounds on those rare occasions when you unintentionally stallthe airplane. That’s why they aresometimes referred to as certifiedflight instructors.What you need to know is that airplanes with a lot of power (like jetfighters) can climb at steep angles;those with limited power, however,must climb at less steep angles.Knowing it’s extra thrust and notextra lift from the wings that isresponsible for the climb allows youto draw some interesting conclusions.For instance, anything that causesthe engine to produce less power prevents you from achieving your maximum rate of climb. Among the thingsresulting in less power productionare high altitudes and high temperatures. More on these factors a bit later.*Angles areexaggerated soyou don't needto use too muchimagination!B5POWER, CLIMB ANGLE AND AIRSPEEDFull Power60160KNOTS80140SteepC100120ClimbAngleFull Power6016080NormBKNOTSal Cl140imb100Angl120eFull Power60160AKNOTS80Straight & Level140100120Even with full throttle (maximum power),the airplane slows down as it attempts toascend a steeper hill. Pilots adjust their climb angle (hill size) by selecting anattitude that gives them a specific climb airspeed.Fig. 7At this point you should be askingan important question. I certainlydon’t mean questions of the “ZenKoan” type, such as “What is thesound of one cylinder firing?” or “Ifan airplane lands hard in the forestand nobody is there to hear it, does itreally make a sound?” A good question for you to ask is, “How can Idetermine the proper size hill for myairplane to climb?” Let’s find out.Airplanes have a specific climbattitude (steepness of hill) that offersthe best of all worlds—optimum climbWow! Those aftermarketadd-ons are reallysomething, aren’t they?performance while keeping the airplane safely above its stall speed. Youcan determine the proper climb attitude for your airplane by referring toits airspeed indicator.With climb power applied (usuallyfull throttle in smaller airplanes) thepitch attitude is adjusted until theairspeed indicates one of two commonly used climb speeds. Thesespeeds are known as the best angle ofclimb and the best rate of climb airspeed. The best angle of climb provides the greatest vertical gain inheight per unit of forward travel; thebest rate of climb provides the greatest vertical travel per unit of time.You select best angle when you needto get up in the shortest possible distance, usually to clear an obstacle.You choose best rate of climb to gainthe most altitude per minute. Let’sput this in concrete terms. Saythere’s a concrete tower 750 feet highhalf a mile off the end of the runway.You definitely want to be above 750feet at one-half mile out, and you

Chapter 3 - Engines: Knowledge of Engines Is PowerC27During a descent, your job is to maintain stablecylinder head temperatures (CHT) and oil temperatures (i.e., keep their temperature indications inthe green). On some airplanes, gear extension oreven partial flap extension at high speeds can beused in lieu of large power reductions to start adescent (check your POH). While momentary powerreductions aren’t as harmful if the power isimmediately restored, large ones over long Aperiods can be damaging. Try planning yourdescents so engine temperatures changeslowly from their previous cruise values.THE CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER1510Moving the propeller control forwardallows the prop blades to take asmaller bite of air. Drag decreases2025and engine RPM speeds up.RPMHUNDREDS305035RPMThe PropellerPropellers come in all sizes and colors, but theyare of two basic types: fixed pitch and constantspeed. In an airplane with a fixed pitch prop, onelever—the throttle—controls both power and propeller blade RPM (revolutions per minute). In aconstant speed prop, there are separate controls for power and RPM.Fig. 4615105Pulling the propeller control rearwardforces the prop blades to take abigger bite of air. Drag increases20and the engine RPM slows.25RPMHUNDREDS30350When you start your flight training, you’llRPMprobably fly an airplane with a fixed pitch Bpropeller. Fixed pitch propellers have theirpitch (angle of attack) fixed during the forging process. The angle is set in stone (actually, aluminum). This pitch can’t be changedexcept by replacing the propeller, which pretty much prevents you from changing the propeller’s pitch in flight. Fixed pitch props are notideal for any one thing, yet they’re in many waysbest for everything. They represent a compromisebetween the bestangle of attack for climb and the best angle for cruise. They are simple to operENGINE CONTROLSate, and easier (thus less expensive) to maintain.FOR AIRPLANES WITHOn fixed pitch propeller airplanes, engine power and engine RPM are both conCONSTANT SPEEDtrolledby the throttle. One lever does it all, power equals RPM, and that’s the end.PROPELLERSAs you move up into higher performance airplanes, you’ll soon encounter constantspeed (controllable pitch) propellers. Airplanes with these propellers usuallyPropeller controlhaveboth a throttle and a propeller control, so you manage engine power andleverpropeller RPM separately (Figure 45).On airplanes with constant speed propellers, movement of the throttle determinesthe amount of fuel and air reaching the cylinders. Simply stated, the throttle determines how much power the engine can develop. Movement of the propeller controlchanges the propeller’s pitch (its angle of attack). This directly controls howfast the propeller rotates (its speed or RPM) as shown in Figure 46. Whilethrottle determines engine power, propeller pitch determines how efficientlythat power is used. Let’s examine how the controllable propeller works. ThenMixturewe’ll examine why changing the propeller’s pitch is useful.controlleverForward movement of the propeller control causes both halves of the proThrottlepeller to rotate about their axes and attack the wind at a smaller angle (i.e.,levertake a smaller bite of air) as shown in Figure 46A. From aerodynamics, youknow that a smaller angle of attack means less drag and less resistance to forward motion. Therefore, moving the propeller control forward increases propellerFig. 45

Rod Machado’s Private Pilot HandbookC28HOW ONE TYPE OF CONSTANTSPEED PROPELLER WORKSFig. 47LowpitchdirectionSpring thatpushes slidingarm forwardas oil pressuredecreasesHighpitchdirectionKeeping Up To(Constant) SpeedEnginecrankshaftHigh pressureoil from enginePropellerbladePiston insidepropellerdomePropellerdomeSliding armConnectinglinkOil from engine enters propellerdome. Piston and sliding arm aremoved aft causing prop to takebigger bite of air.RPM. Pulling the propeller controlrearward causes the propeller toattack the wind at a larger angle ofattack (i.e., take a larger bite of air).Propeller drag increases and engineRPM slows, as shown in Figure 46B.POWER LEVERS ONAIRPLANES WITHCONSTANT SPEEDPROPELLERSManifold Pressure Gauge25 3020MANIFOLDPRESSURE35401510INCHES OF MERCURYABSOLUTEManifold pressure iscontrolled by thethrottle and showsthe pressure of airdownstream of throttlevalve. Think of it as arough measurementof engine power.Tachometer15 2010RPMHUNDREDS25305350RPMFig. 48The tachometershows engine speed.It is a measure ofengine efficiencyand performanceand is controlled bythe propeller control.Since the tachometer tells you howfast the propeller spins (its RPM), isthere a gauge to tell you how muchthrottle is applied? Yes. It’s called amanifold pressure gauge and it givesyou an approximate measure ofengine power (Figure 48).At the beginning of this chapter, wesaid a vacuum is created in the induction system as a result of pistonsdescending on their intake strokes(Figure 49). With the throttle closed,the throttle valve in the inductionsystem prevents air (thus fuel) fromrushing into the cylinders and powering the engine. But what is it thatforces air into the induction systemin the first place? Yes, it’s the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere.Because atmospheric pressure ishigher than the pressure within theinduction system, air flows into thecylinders. Simply stated, the atmosphere wants to push air into theinduction system (toward the suctioncreated by the downward moving pistons). The amount of this push ismeasured by the manifold pressuregauge (the gauge is nothing morethan a barometric measuring devicecalibrated to read pressure in inchesFigure 47 shows how the constantspeed propeller system works on a typical single engine airplane. Oil pressurefrom the engine provides the hydraulicforce used to increase the propeller’spitch. Moving the propeller control aftsends high pressure engine oil to a piston/cylinder arrangement within thepropeller hub. This hydraulically pushes the propeller toward a high pitchposition. Moving the propeller controlforward reduces oil pressure within thispiston/cylinder arrangement allowingcentrifugal force to return the propellerblades to their low pitch (high RPM)position. We cycle the propeller duringour runup (change the pitch from lowto high and back again a few times) tomake sure the system is working aswell as to purge cold oil from the propeller’s hydraulic system.of mercury—just like altimeters thatwe’ll discuss in Chapter 5).Manifold pressure is measureddownstream of the throttle valve, asshown in Figure 49. When the throttle is closed, air outside the engine(under higher atmospheric pressure)can’t flow into the induction system,despite the vacuum on the engineside of the throttle valve. Figure 50Ashows a manifold pressure of 14 inches of mercury with a closed throttle.The engine is sucking as hard as itcan but the outside air can’t get pastthe closed throttle valve.Opening the throttle slightly causes an increase in manifold pressureas shown in Figure 50B. More air andfuel are drawn inside the engine, andpower increases. Eventually, as thethrottle is fully opened (Figure 50C),the pressure downstream of thethrottle valve approaches that of theatmosphere. In other words, the airis being forced into the induction system at the maximum pressure theatmosphere is capable of pushing.Did thecontroller say,“Radar contact?”

Chapter 3 - Engines: Knowledge of Engines Is PowerC29HOW THE ENGINE DRAWS INAIR FOR COMBUSTIONAs the piston moves downward, it creates a suction inthe cylinder similar to the plunger in a hypodermicneedle. Low pressure is created, which draws air inthrough the induction system.Manifold pressure ismeasured downstreamof the throttle valve. It'snothing more than ameasure of air pressurein inches of mercury.25 3020MANIFOLDPRESSURE35401510INCHES OF MERCURYABSOLUTEAtmospheric pressure forces airinto the induction system towardthe lower pressure in the cylinder.ThrottlevalveAIR FLOWFig. 49InductionsystemUnder normal conditions, theengine’s manifold pressure can’t riseabove atmospheric pressure. Why?The atmosphere can only push anamount equal to how much it weighs.At sea level, atmospheric pressureMANIFOLD PRESSUREFig. 50Manifold pressure is measured downstream from the throttle valveand provides an approximate measure of engine power.ACB25 3020MANIFOLDPRESSURE25 3025 303520401510INCHES OF MERCURYABSOLUTEweighs enough to push a column ofmercury 30 inches into a glass tubecontaining a vacuum (see Chapter 5for more details on barometric pressure). As a measurement of theatmosphere’s weight, we say that theoutside air pressure is 30 inches ofmercury. Therefore, the engine’smanifold pressure at full throttle is alittle less than 30 inches (it’s a littleless because of air friction and intakerestrictions within the induction system). Clearly, then, manifold pressures near 30 inches of mercury signifies more power is being developedby the engine. On the other hand,low manifold pressures (say 15 inches or so) indicate less fuel and air isentering the cylinders and less poweris being produced.As the airplane climbs, you’llnotice the manifold pressure decreases even though the throttle is fullyopened. Why? Atmospheric pressuredecreases as you ascend. It decreasesapproximately one inch of mercuryfor every thousand feet of altitudegain (and increases approximatelyone inch of mercury for every thousand feet of altitude loss). At sea levelyou can develop approximately 30inches of manifold pressure with fullthrottle. At 5,000 MSL, however,your manifold pressure will beapproximately 25 inches with fullMANIFOLDPRESSURE10INCHES OF MERCURYABSOLUTE354010INCHES OF MERCURYABSOLUTEAirintakeInduction systemWhen the throttle is fullyclosed, airflow into thecylinders is restricted. Verylittle airflow gets past thethrottle valve despite thepiston's enormous suction(low manifold takeInduction systemInduction systemAt partial power, a littlemore air flows into thecylinders. Therefore,the air pressure risesin the intake manifoldresulting in a rise ofmanifold pressure.At full throttle in a nonturbocharged engine, aircan't be forced into theengine at greater thanatmospheric pressure(which is near 30 inchesof mercury).

Page D1Chapter FourElectrical SystemsKnowing What’s WattA Simplified Approach for Those With Little or No Understanding of ElectricityWelcome to Volts for Dolts, the room door you’re on. Now we’re com- The model’s language isn’t preciseMachado QuickCourse for those municating.enough to describe the intricate elecafraid of electricity.Unfortunately, the philosophy of trical nuances necessary to accurateAttention, class. This is going to be simplicity has not been applied to ly convey the point (besides, whatunderstanding the airplane’s electri- would you do if water suddenly shoteasy.out of your hard drive?). You can,Watt? Easy? Yes, because we’re cal system—until now.We’re going to approach this like a however, use the water model togoing to learn what electricity does,rather than split atoms over what it plumber, by thinking about electrici- describe—accurately enough to suitty as though it were water. This may any normal private pilot—how anis.airplane’s electrical system works.Let’s be practical. You don’t know, be the only chance you will ever haveI caution you not to take thisand don’t much care, about the dif- to mix electricity and water safely, sopayattention.modelliterally, and if you actuallyference between jewels and joules.areknowledgeableabout things elecYou do want and need to know howA water model of electricity usesto detect and direct electrons in your basic plumbing language to explain trical, I also urge you not to takeairplane and put them to work for how electrons flow in a circuit. The offense. The model is only used toyou. You also need to know when the only problem with the model is that help clarify certain cause and effectelectrical system is threatening to you can’t use it to build a computer. relationships.roll over and play dead, and what canbe done about it.IF YOU STUDY THE WATER THEORY OF ELECTRICITY.Read on. Fear not. Think volt, notbolt.Electricity and WaterAlbert Einstein once said, “Makeeverything as simple as possible, butnot simpler.” For instance, Einstein’sconcept of time distortion is oftendiscussed from a mathematical perspective. For most of us, this is likelistening to a lecture delivered inMartian. Actually, Southern Martian.On the other hand, suppose someonesaid that the length of one minutedepends on which side of the bath-Hey acornhead! Getoff thecord. you need not worrythat stepping on the electrical cord will cut offthe flow of juice to yourelectrical equipment!

Rod Machado’s Private Pilot HandbookD6CHARGETHE CHARGE/DISRAMMETELoad meterWater pump(alternator)ALTCB600ALTAMPERESPrimary busBetween the positive terminal ofthe battery and the primary bus isanother version of an ammeter foundon some airplanes (Figure 12).Ammeters of this variety are oftencalled charge-discharge ammeters.Figure 13 shows a charge-dischargeammeter. As the name implies, thecharge-discharge ammeter tells you ifelectrical current is flowing into orout of the battery. This directlyinforms you about your electrical system’s state of health. Whether youhave a load meter or a charge-discharge ammeter depends on the specific make and model of your airplane. Most airplanes have one or theother but seldom both.Current flow from the primary businto the battery is indicated by a positive needle deflection (Figure 14).Think of water (electrical current)pushing the needle toward the ( ) or(-) side of the ammeter as it enters orleaves the battery. A positive deflection usually implies that the batteryis being charged (water is movinginto the battery). A negative needledeflection indicates that the batteryis supplying the primary bus withelectrical current (water is movingout of the battery).Normally, the needle should beresting near the zero or center mark.This implies that the battery is neither being charged nor discharged (agood sign). Continuous needle deflections too far from cen-WATER ANALOGY OF ELECTRICITY0Charge/dischargeammeter6060AMPERESFig. DLIGHTCBNAVLIGHTAvionicsmaster switchElectricalgroundBatteryCBAvionics busThe Charge-DischargeAmmeterElectricalgroundter, however, are cause for concern.There are circumstances where theneedle will indicate a large deflectionfrom the center position for shortperiods.Starter motors demand largeamounts of electrical current fortheir operation. After startup, thebattery is sure to be slightly drained.Expect to see a positive ( ) needledeflection of five, maybe six or sevenneedle widths on the ammeter rightafter engine start. This means thatA wise man says, “Manwho use tongue to testairplane battery findexperience re-volting.”CB NAVCBRADIOCBNAVthe alternator is replenishing batteryenergy consumed by the currenthungry starter. Expect a similarammeter indication if the radios werePOSITIVE ( )AMMETERINDICATIONWater (current) flow0Charge/dischargeammeter60Fig. 14BatteryBatterybeingchargedFig. 13RADIO60AMPERES

Chapter 4 - Electrical Systems: Knowing What’s WattD7used extensively prior to enginestart. But beware! Too much chargeis not a good thing—for batteries orcredit cards!Most airplane operation manualssuggest that after approximately 30minutes of cruising flight, the ammeter needle should return to within atwo-needle-width deflection fromcenter on the positive ( ) or chargingside. A larger (positive) needle deflection suggests problems with the battery or the alternator. A runaway(unregulated) alternator can providetoo much current and overcharge thebattery. This is usually indicated by alarge positive needle deflection (morethan one or two needle widths).Theexcess voltage can boil off batteryfluid (electrolyte), damaging the batteryand possibly causing a battery fire.A needle deflection on the negative(-) side means current is flowing outof the battery onto the primary bus(Figure 15). It also means the alternator isn’t providing the necessaryvoltage to keep the battery charged.This situation is similar to a flightinstructor’s bank account, wheremore is going out than is comingin. Chances are the alternatorhas failed, has been automaticallyNEGATIVE (-)AMMETERINDICATIONWater (current)flow060Fig. 15BatteryBatterybeingdrained60AMPERESWater (current) flowCharge/dischargeammeterAirplanes With Volt and AmmetersThe voltmeter gives you more direct informationabout the alternator’s output or, if the alternator isn’ton line, about the energy available in the battery.Unlike the ammeter, the voltmeter can tell you thecondition of your battery before the engine isstarted.An excessive system-voltage reading probablyindicates voltage regulator trouble that can lead tobattery overcharge and electrical equipment damage. Insufficient voltage indicates that the batteryisn’t being charged properly. Remember, systemvoltage must be higher than battery voltage for thebattery to charge.disconnected from the system, or isbeing improperly regulated. Any wayyou look at it, you have a problem.The battery will eventually lose itscharge.This situation is best handled byconserving battery energy (turningoff everything you don’t need) and, ifnecessary, landing at the nearest airport. Remember, you may need battery power to lower landing gear orflaps, or power the landing lights ifflying at night. This is why goodpilots carry flashlights (and badpilots use flashlights to carry theirdead batteries). A nearly centeredcharge-discharge ammeter needleusually means an electrical systemthat knows what’s watt and is takingcare of business.In the early 1980’s I had the pleasure of checking out an airline captainin a Cessna 152. We had a wonderfultime learning the systems and flyingthe aircraft. He did quite well exceptfor one thing. On every final approachhe would call the tower and say,“Ahhh, John Wayne Tower, this isUnited heavy, we’re on a long finalapproach for 1-9-Left.” The controllerthought this was really funny. Thepilots of the little planes on short finalfor runway 19 Left didn’t. Thethought of an enormous metallic PacMan gaining on them was downrightscary! Attempting to understand theelectrical system is somewhat likebeing the guy on short final for 19L.It’s scary at first, but when you get agood, clear look at the threat, it’s notso bad after all. Hopefully, you haven’tbeen scared by the electrical system sofar. Let’s return to our discussion onload meters and discuss them in relation to the airplane’s battery.Load MetersThere are benefits and disadvantages to almost everything you do.For instance, whenever I travel to alocation for a speech, I always get themost economical airfare for the client.However, economy is not without itsdisadvantages. On my last flight toNome, Alaska I had four planechanges. Unfortunately, two were inflight. Load meters in lieu of chargedischarge ammeters have their benefits and disadvantages. Essentially,both kinds of meters provide pilotswith the same type of information,but in a slightly different format.Load meters provide importantindications about the health of theairplane’s electrical system. Unlikecharge-discharge ammeters, they arecalibrated to reflect the actualampere load placed on the alternator.Both varieties of ammeter are shownin Figure 16. Remember, most airplanes will have either one variety ofammeter or the other.TWO VARIETIES rgeLoad meterammetertype ammeterFig. 16

Rod Machado’s Private Pilot HandbookD8A wise man says,“Pilot who thinks that‘primary bus’ means goodtransportation, not travel farin world of aviation.”Electrical DrainIf you’re piloting an airplaneequipped with a load meter, you needto know how much electrical currenteach piece of electrical equipmentconsumes. Think of each piece ofelectrical equipm

Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook B4. later I’ll show you how to recognize when you’re near a stall). As long as the airplane stays above its stall speed, enough lift is produced to counter the airplane’s weight and the airplane will fly. If the stall speed of Airplane C

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