Ministry Of Justice, The Hague,

2y ago
15 Views
2 Downloads
1.20 MB
20 Pages
Last View : 1m ago
Last Download : 2m ago
Upload by : Azalea Piercy
Transcription

If you have issues viewing or accessing this file contact us at NCJRS.gov.U.S. Department of JusticeNational Institute of Justice123048This document has been reproduced exactly as received from thepersoh or organization originating It. Points of view or opinions statedIn this dot::ument are those of the authors and do not necessarilyrepresent the official position or policies of the National Institute ofJustice.Permission to reproduce this copyrighted material has beengranted byMinistry of Justice, The Hague,The NETHERLANDSto the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS).('",Further reproduction outside of the NCJRS system requires permission of the copyright owner.Crime Prevention Policy: Current State andProsp ct Paper for II European Colloquium onCrime and Public Policy in EuropeBuchenbach/Freiburg,September 3-7, 1989Jan J.M. van DijkHead of the Directorate for Crime PreventionMinistry of Justice, The HagueThe NetherlandsAugust 25, 1989

1'JCrime Prevention Policy: Current State and Prospects1. I this paper,I will not try to give an overview of the current body ofknowledge about crime prevention. Neither will I give detailed guidelinesfor future policies or experiments. I understand HEUNI has commissioned J.Graham of the Home Office to prepare adraft of such a comprehensivereport";'·itr··preparation of the next UN Conference on Crime Preve"ritibn"'andthe Treatment of Offenders. Instead, I will just try to make a contributionto the debate by reflecting upon some current trends.In the course ofthis, I will argue for a new conceptual model, covering both various formsof crime prevention, victim assistance and the activities of the criminaljus tice sys tem.2. Subject matterCrime prevention is an often used concept with a loosely defined meaning.According to Johnson (1987) prevention is based on four interrelated ideas:1) that something evil unpleasant or destructive is impending; 2) that thiseventuality can be forestalled by human insight and ingenuity; 3) that muchof the preventive activities are outside the boundaries of the criminaljustice system; and 4) that human intervention should be initiated beforethe undesirable event occurs.Building upon these ideas, I propose thecrime prevention:outsidethethetotalboundariesofof allthefoll wingpolicies,criminaltentative definition ofmeasuresjusticesystem,andtechniques,aiming atthereduction of the various kinds of damage caused by acts defined as criminalby the state.This definition covers fear reduction programmes, since fear can be seen asa damaging result of (perceived) criminality. It also covers, as we willargue later, victim assistance policies since these can be viewed as formsof damage control.The mostcontentiouspart of thedefinition isthe term "outside theboundaries of the criminal justice system". In the 20th century, eventiveeffectsofcriminal justice interventions (the influence of just desert philosophersbeing largely limited to the USA). In this view criminal justice itself is

j), 2a form of crime prevention. Although the capacity of the criminal justice;.' S'y'S'temeoact:ivit'ies' canprevent crime seems inherently limited, itsbe interpreted de facto as a kind of crime prevention. In fact,"crime prevention" in the title of the United Nations'indeedthe termconferences on thePrevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders seems to refer terventionsuponthegeneral public.In our view, the administration of criminal law and crime prevention in itsnarrow sense are both essential parts of an all-encompassing criminal orcrime policy. In practice there will often be an overlap between both kindsof interventions. Drugs treatment programmes, for instance, will often bemade available for both convicted offendersforand theras a special penal measure andcategories of addicts as a voluntary option. For both ver,sharply between crime prevention and criminal justice.todistinguishIn order to makethis point, the Dutch government has introduced the term administrative orsocial crime prevention for what is defined here as crime prevention.Inthe USA the term community crime prevention is often employed for similarreasons (Rosenbaum, 1988).3. Primary, secondary and tertiary preventionseconda yIn the literature, a distinction is often made between rimary1988).Thispreventioninvolves attempts to lower rates of new cases by initiating some eracttheproblem.directedatdiagnosed as having early symptoms of the nindividualsDiagnostic techniquesIaresupposed to discover the especially crime prone(the risk groups).Tertiary prevention is directed at offenders to forestall further crimes.As discussed above,we prefer to keep prevention through punishment(orinvoluntary treatment of convicted offenders) outside our concept of crimeprevention.Some formsof voluntary aftercaretertiary crime prevention in our view, though.could rightly be seen as

·.3According to Lab (1988) primary prevention is directed at the oiunentopportunities or motivations for criminal '::lvideThis definition includesSecondarypreventionaremeasures directed at conditions in selected environments with high llformsofopportunity reduction by potential victims as secondary prevention.Lab and Kube like Brantingham and Faust (1976) do not differentiate bet:weenpolicies directed at victims and those directed at offenders directly. Theydefine victim-oriented prevention as part of either primary or secondaryprevention in general.In this paper we will argue for a conceptual model distinguishing from theoutset between victim-oriented and offender-oriented crime prevention. Wewillalsoarguefortheretentionofthedistinction between pri.mary,secondary and tertiary prevention.4. Victim oriented crime preventionThe recent history of crime prevention policies has not been quite the sameinthe variousdiscerned.InprogrammesofWestern countriesthesixtiessocialbut somecrimereformgeneral patterns can yet ocatedwithasanalternative to the punitive policies of the criminal justice autho:rities.Thedominantschooling,out,itnotion wasthatcrimecould bewelfare and employment policies.isironicexperiencing boththatthisrapidlyexploding crime rates.ideologyimprovingAs Wilson (1975) has pointedwassocialcured by better housing,mostpopularand economicinaperiodconditionsandThe development of registered crime rates clearlyshowed tha't more prosperity did not lead to less crime. To underline thisargument,it can be pointed out that in Western Europe registered crimestarted to rise first and foremost in Sweden (precisely the country whoseeconomy was less damaged by the Second World War and which was the first tobuild a welfare state).An overview of the trend of registered cri.me infive European countries, is presented in the figure 1.e" ).p· i:. :., Bw, .du .& i il.; ,ji: '1-H il 1,;:',!.'; I;'b. :,- '; l!;. :·M i:t .·!'f; i A {iJt:; t,.\;: I" '.; : v-: t;1:fj,li t,\"W,1i:;,!.J;'1 J.:;i,'1 JiI;l! · 1.-"7\:;,.: " ,;k: u.:·. 4 ,:; .,;'BJi.";tf;-:'):; I'·YU; .;L,t.:P", ·,g'il[ o\I2j \;td,;t ;'i;:!'K\;:Gd.: -t.; . J,.%tl ,it.,;"-'., 1: tP' !.l: t;r)!;J' ,"",-,, """"''''''-''- :.:.'"".lLiO,.",.,. .'Ii '.i .

4Figure 1: Crimes known to the police in five European countries14,000 [12.000West GermanylFranceEngland & Wales10.000NetherlandsSweden8,000.;:,. - .,;. ,;; 6,000:'//,'/.::' /.;' /.,' /4.000. ,' /""./. . ,',,- /2.000:': '"w.;, - ---"A:; a commentary to the Swedish crime boom Svensson (1986) observed"In the20th century - the criminality of the destitute has been superseded by whatmay be called welfare criminality" (cited by Young, 1988).In the seventies,the concept of crime prevention through social reformgradually lost its credibility. Since the preventive concept had failed,the expenditures for the criminal justice system were expanded in manycountries (Young, 1988). In the same period a new kind of crime preventionactivities became fashionable which didn't aim' at (pre)de1inquents but atthose at risk to be victimized by crime.Crime prevention became victim-oriented.Thlenewbuzzwordsem,rironmenta1 design,were:targethardening,defensible space,crimepreventionthroughsitua,tional crime prevention andop;portunity reduction (Newman, 1972, Mayhew et al., 1976; Brantingham andBrantingham,effective,1981). It was subsequently understood that,in order to besuch measures need to be combined with organized surveillance

5(Van Dijk,·0Junger-Tas,1988;Rosenbaum,1988).A second wave of crimepreventi0nA a.nitiatives in the eighties aimed to strenghten infbrmal'··:tsocia1control by means of neighborhood watch, private security, caretakers etc.(Hope, Shaw, 1988).The common element of victim-oriented crime prevention is that ctthemse1ve'sagainstcriminal risks. Crime policy is no longer the exclusive responsibility ofthe state.Several typologies of such protective, defensive or communitycrime prevention measures are proposed in the literature. A distinction isoften made between technical and social measures(technoprevention andsocioprevention). Another important distinction is between measures takenby individuals and those taken by social groups.On the basis of these two criteria a typology can be construed as presentedin figure 2.Figure 2: Typology of victim-oriented crime prevention strategiesindividualssocial institutionstechnicallocks and boltsburglar alarmCCTVurban designsocialneighborhood watchprivate securityprofessional surveillance5. Primary, secondary and tertiary victim policiesThe public health categories of primary, secondary and tertiary preventionare rarely applied to victim-oriented prevention as such. It seems useful,however,todistinguishbetweenthreedifferent' policies,targeted atgroups of the population with a varying degree of exposure to criminalvictimization.Some measures are recommendable to the public at large. Examples are theinstallation of adequate locks in houses and steering column blocks in carsand the taking of elementary safety precautions. General social measureslike adequate street lighting,surveillance in public transport systems,

6and responsible planning and design also fall in this category of primaryvictim-oriented crime prevention.Specialmeasuresmust bevictimization risks,taken by groupssuch asof thepopulation with highpersonnel of banks. or petrol stationsandowners of expensive property living in detached houses. Several businessesare by nature of their activities exposed to crime (e.g. department stores,soccer clubs).The protective measure against such special risks can bedefined as secondary victim-oriented crime prevention.Tertiary victim-oriented ally,consistsvictimstofirstly ofpreventfurthervictimization. The prevention of victim recidivism is indeed an importantsubgoal of many victim assista.nce programmes. In our view the emotional andlegalsupportprevention,givensincetoactualcrime victimssuch activitiesare also part of tertiaryseek to minimizethe harm done by acrime. In public health prevention at this level, individuals suffering permanentdisability. Interventions which try to help crime victims to overcome dsecondarycrimeprevention will often not be clear.Protective measureswomencan betopreventsexualharassmentseen asvictim-orientedtaken by youngeitherprimaryorsecondary ticalandpracticalimplications. It brings into focus that some measures seek to lower averagevictimization risks(pr maryprevention) and others try to reduce specialrisks to an average level (secondary prevention). Displacement effects canperhaps be better understood if a distinction is made between primary alimportantimplications. If the special risks are generated by commercial activities,the responsibility for preventive measures will usually lie primarily withthe institutions itself. Most governments require infor example,theirtooffices.Secondary crime prevention policies will often be facilitated because thetarget group can be made aware of its special risks (and so of its interest

7in""""" . darycrimepreventionamongst their cus tomers. The task to reach a 'liinited···target group is alsoeasier than in the case of primary prevention programmes aiming at andlargeeasiersecondary victim-oriented crimeavenueforpreventivepoliciesthanprimary, overall prevention campaigns. A long term crime prevention policy,however, should also seek to reduce criminal opportunities created by thepublic at large, including businesses and state institutions.6. Prospects and limitations of victim-oriented crime preventionProspectsGrime prevention in Western Europe has been dominated since the seventiesby the concept of pr?tection against criminal threats, just as in NorthernAmerica.Interestinglyprevention of theinFrance,butsocial reform typealsoinItalyandSpaincrimeseems to have retained its appeal(Waller, 1989).Much progress has been made so far with secondary prevention in particular.Banks across Western Europe have improved their security. Largely withoutany initiatives by the state, private security firms have grown in numberand size.In the area of primary crime prevention,the developments mayhave been somewhat slower. However, various forms of target hardening aremuch more widely applied now than fifteen years ago. In order to get ecuritywefirms,havethepurchase of household security equipment and state-run crime preventionprogrammes of five European countries (see figure 3). We have added data onexpenditures on police and prisons.

8Figure 3: Indicators of annual expenditure on crime policies in fiveEuropean countries in the mid eighties, per 100,000 inhabitantsin million police officers prIvate securityoffIcersWEST ClMO & lIAl.ESHEnlERLJ.HIlSSHEOCIIhousehold securityreasurcs expendl enditureon trIbe 040,02Hotc: the annual costs pel" police officer and private security officer are estlNted at 40.000 for all countriesSource: HEUNI, 1985/Council of Europe, 1988Frost and Sullivan, 1988Ministry of Justice, 1984Van Dijk, 1988Home Office, 1988Private security is much more prominent, in Sweden,FRG and England andWales than in France and Holland. The rates of household security sales areless divergent, but somewhat lower in England and again Holland. Governmentexpenditures on crime prevention are modestprisonsandpoliceforcesacrossEurope.in comparison toTheexpendituresthose ononcrimeprevention are extremely low in the FRG, since federal programmes do notexist and only some of the states have developed concrete policies. Theexpenditures in the UK are largely part of other government programmes imepreventionprojects are of marginal importance (app. 0.02 million dollars per 100,000inhabitants, mainly spent on massmedia campaigns). By comparison the annualexpenditure of around 0.04 million dollars in Holland seems rather high.The Dutch expenditures have been politically justified with reference toeven higher expenditures which would be required for criminal justice ifprevention would not be promoted adequately.Although expenditures on crime prevention by both the private and publicsector have gone up in the eighties, 'there is still ample scope for further

ndarycrimeprevention more actively. Marketing research predicts a continuous annuaigrowth of 10 percent in household security equipment. Similar growth ratesareexpectedbyprivateincreasingly aware of nomicimportance of crime prevention ikewiseadatabeensensitized to the importance of crime prevention as part of their effortsto improve the quality of life in urban areas. The number of neighborhoodschemes is rapidly expanding in the UK. On the continent surveillance isstrengthened bytheemploymentof morecaretakers,busconductors,citywardens etc.Victim-oriented crime prevention seems not yet to have reached its fullpractical potential. Many governments are still hesitant to invest seriousmoney in it.Field and Hopegroundsgovernmentfor(1989)subsidieshave persuasively argued on economicinthemarketforprimarycrimeprevention. Other important priorities for the government are research anddevelopment, the development of European standards and a better regulationof the activities of private security firms.EffectivenessEvaluation research on target hardening and other forms of victim-orientedprevention has so far yielded ambiguous results (Mayhew, 1984; Rosenbaum,1988; Lab, 1988). The ability to reduce specific types of criminal activityin specific situations has been demonstrated clearly.The value of sucheffects is often limited, however, by a displacement of the avoided sofcrime.Displacement or substitution effects are no ground for a general acknowledgedthatsuccessful offender-oriented prevention may have more lasting benefits forthe community at large.FearFearreduction haspractice,beendefined hereaspartof crimeprevention.Inthe relationship between crime and fear reduction is far from

10simple. Some measures or policies may serve both goals. Some may serve oneofthem exclusively.IAhotheru po,ssibility is that certain policies. havepositive results in one area but compound problems in others.Several victim-oriented policies have been found to reduce fear, eretal.,1979).::Security surveys, crime prevention information campaigns, the redesigning,of neighborhoods and community projects have sometimes been found to leadtto intensified fear (YTil1kel, 1987; Rosenbaum, 1988). Fear or anxiety shouldnot always be interpreted as a social loss. In some situations it may evenhave important benefits.ori ntedThe fear- inducing side-effects of some victim-prevention policies need always to be made part of their cost-benefits-equation,(Shapland and Vagg, 1988). The gradual greying of theWestern European population in the next decades may make the side effectsof intensified fear moreimportant,since the elderly are particularlysensitive to fear-invoking information.,Saturation and resistance.'"Al though there is still scope for a further growth in the purchase ofsecurity measures in most Western countries, it will become mainingpartsofthepopulation who have not yet been persuaded. To the extent that primaryprevention has become more common, larger investments are required to bringabout further growth. Mass media campaigns tend not to reach, or to affect,those least inclined to apply

Justice. Permission to reproduce this copyrighted material has been granted by Ministry of Justice, The Hague, The NETHERLANDS to the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS). Further reproduction outside of the NCJRS system requires permis sion of the copyright owner. Crime Prevention Policy: Current State and Prosp ct

Related Documents:

May 02, 2018 · D. Program Evaluation ͟The organization has provided a description of the framework for how each program will be evaluated. The framework should include all the elements below: ͟The evaluation methods are cost-effective for the organization ͟Quantitative and qualitative data is being collected (at Basics tier, data collection must have begun)

Silat is a combative art of self-defense and survival rooted from Matay archipelago. It was traced at thé early of Langkasuka Kingdom (2nd century CE) till thé reign of Melaka (Malaysia) Sultanate era (13th century). Silat has now evolved to become part of social culture and tradition with thé appearance of a fine physical and spiritual .

On an exceptional basis, Member States may request UNESCO to provide thé candidates with access to thé platform so they can complète thé form by themselves. Thèse requests must be addressed to esd rize unesco. or by 15 A ril 2021 UNESCO will provide thé nomineewith accessto thé platform via their émail address.

̶The leading indicator of employee engagement is based on the quality of the relationship between employee and supervisor Empower your managers! ̶Help them understand the impact on the organization ̶Share important changes, plan options, tasks, and deadlines ̶Provide key messages and talking points ̶Prepare them to answer employee questions

Dr. Sunita Bharatwal** Dr. Pawan Garga*** Abstract Customer satisfaction is derived from thè functionalities and values, a product or Service can provide. The current study aims to segregate thè dimensions of ordine Service quality and gather insights on its impact on web shopping. The trends of purchases have

Chính Văn.- Còn đức Thế tôn thì tuệ giác cực kỳ trong sạch 8: hiện hành bất nhị 9, đạt đến vô tướng 10, đứng vào chỗ đứng của các đức Thế tôn 11, thể hiện tính bình đẳng của các Ngài, đến chỗ không còn chướng ngại 12, giáo pháp không thể khuynh đảo, tâm thức không bị cản trở, cái được

ME – Ministry of Economics MES – Ministry of Education and Science MEPRD – Ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional Development MF – Ministry of Finance MH – Ministry of Health MI – Ministry of the Interior MJ – Ministry of Justice MRDLG – Ministry of Regional Development and Local Government MT – Ministry of Transport

CIE IGCSE Business Studies Paper 1 Summer & Winter 2012 to 2015 . UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL EXAMINATIONS International General Certificate of Secondary Education MARK SCHEME for the May/June 2012 question paper for the guidance of teachers 0450 BUSINESS STUDIES 0450/11 Paper 1 (Short Answer/Structured Response), maximum raw mark 100 This mark scheme is published as an aid to .