The Collateral Ligament Of The Digits Of The Hand: Anatomy .

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CURRENT CONCEPTSThe Collateral Ligament of the Digits ofthe Hand: Anatomy, Physiology,Biomechanics, Injury, and TreatmentLeo M. Rozmaryn, MD*CME INFORMATION AND DISCLOSURESThe Journal of Hand Surgery will contain at least 2 clinically relevant articles selected bythe editor to be offered for CME in each issue. For CME credit, the participant mustread the articles in print or online and correctly answer all related questions throughan online examination. The questions on the test are designed to make the readerthink and will occasionally require the reader to go back and scrutinize the article fordetails.The JHS CME Activity fee of 15.00 includes the exam questions/answers only and does notinclude access to the JHS articles referenced.Statement of Need: This CME activity was developed by the JHS editors as a convenienteducation tool to help increase or affirm reader’s knowledge. The overall goal of the activityis for participants to evaluate the appropriateness of clinical data and apply it to theirpractice and the provision of patient care.Accreditation: The ASSH is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Continuing MedicalEducation to provide continuing medical education for physicians.AMA PRA Credit Designation: The American Society for Surgery of the Hand designatesthis Journal-Based CME activity for a maximum of 1.00 AMA PRA Category 1 Credits .Physicians should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participationin the activity.Technical Requirements for the Online Examination can be found at http://jhandsurg.org/cme/home.Privacy Policy can be found at SSH Disclosure Policy: As a provider accredited by the ACCME, the ASSH must ensurebalance, independence, objectivity, and scientific rigor in all its activities.Disclosures for this ArticleEditorsDavid T. Netscher, MD, has no relevant conflicts of interest to disclose.AuthorsAll authors of this journal-based CME activity have no relevant conflicts of interest todisclose. In the printed or PDF version of this article, author affiliations can be found at thebottom of the first page.PlannersDavid T. Netscher, MD, has no relevant conflicts of interest to disclose. The editorial andeducation staff involved with this journal-based CME activity has no relevant conflicts ofinterest to disclose.Learning ObjectivesUpon completion of this CME activity, the learner should achieve an understanding of:ASSH Disclaimer: The material presented in this CME activity is made available by theASSH for educational purposes only. This material is not intended to represent the onlymethods or the best procedures appropriate for the medical situation(s) discussed, butrather it is intended to present an approach, view, statement, or opinion of the authorsthat may be helpful, or of interest, to other practitioners. Examinees agree to participatein this medical education activity, sponsored by the ASSH, with full knowledge andawareness that they waive any claim they may have against the ASSH for reliance onany information presented. The approval of the US Food and Drug Administration isrequired for procedures and drugs that are considered experimental. Instrumentationsystems discussed or reviewed during this educational activity may not yet have receivedFDA approval.Deadline: Each examination purchased in 2017 must be completed by January 31, 2018, tobe eligible for CME. A certificate will be issued upon completion of the activity. Estimatedtime to complete each JHS CME activity is up to one hour.Provider Information can be found at http://www.assh.org/Pages/ContactUs.aspx.Copyright ª 2017 by the American Society for Surgery of the Hand. All rights reserved.From the *The Orthopedic Center, The Centers for Advanced Orthopedics, Rockville, MD.Corresponding author: Leo M. Rozmaryn, MD, The Orthopedic Center, The Centers forAdvanced Orthopedics, 9420 Key West Ave. Suite 300, Rockville, MD 20850; e-mail:lrozmaryn@gmail.com.Received for publication May 9, 2017; accepted in revised form August 23, 2017.No benefits in any form have been received or will be received related directly or indirectlyto the subject of this article.904r 2017 ASSHrPublished by Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. The anatomy of pathophysiology of the collateral ligaments of the digits of thehandThe most important stabilizers to lateral deviation at the metacarpophalangeal(MCP), proximal interphalangeal (PIP), and distal interphalangeal (DIP) jointsDiagnosis of injuries to those structuresManagement and treatment of injuries involving the collateral ligaments0363-5023/17/4211-0008 4

COLLATERAL LIGAMENTS OF THE DIGITS OF THE HAND905Ligament injuries are among the most common musculoskeletal injuries seen in clinicalpractice and ligaments are the most frequently injured structures in a joint. Ligaments play animportant role in balancing joint mobility and joint stability. Disruption of joint ligamentsseverely impairs joint function. Over the past 10 years, a new appreciation of a neuroanatomyand neurophysiology of joint ligaments and its biofeedback loops to surrounding muscles andtendons has emerged to explain the relationship between primary and secondary restraints thatallow normal joint motion yet prevent pathological motion. This review focuses on this recentinformation with a view to new clinical approaches to these common problems. (J Hand SurgAm. 2017;42(11):904e915. Copyright 2017 by the American Society for Surgery of theHand. All rights reserved.)Key words Dislocation, finger, joint, injury, ligament.Lcommonmusculoskeletal injuries seen in clinical practice and ligaments are the most frequentlyinjured structure in a joint. Ligaments play animportant role in balancing joint mobility and jointstability and their disruption severely impairs jointfunction.In 2009, a National Electronic Injury SurveillanceSystem study showed 3.5 million upper extremity injuries a year in the United States.1 Finger injuries were38% of those (1.3 million) and 16% of those (210,000)were sprains and strains. Dislocations accounted for5% (65,000). The incidence of finger sprains is 37.3per 100,000 a year in the United States. The proximalinterphalangeal (PIP) joint is most commonly injured,followed by the thumb metacarpophalangeal (MCP)joint, and then the finger MCP joints.1There are many time-honored methods of treatingfinger ligament injuries but, unfortunately, all toofrequently this injury leads to finger stiffness, instability, chronic pain, swelling, and a substantial loss offunction.Over the past 10 years, there have been manyadvances in the understanding of the anatomy,physiology, and biomechanics of the ligamentousjoint capsule of the MCP, PIP, and distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints. I focus on this new informationwith a view to new clinical approaches for thesecommon problems.IGAMENT INJURIES ARE AMONG THE MOSTANATOMYMCP joint of the thumbThe collateral ligament originates dorsally on thecondyle of the metacarpal head and extends in apalmar and distal direction to insert on the tubercle ofthe proximal phalanx. It runs adjacent to the accessoryJ Hand Surg Am.rcollateral ligament (Fig. 1). The radial collateralligament (RCL) of the thumb has been reported to be 4to 8 mm wide and 12 to 14 mm in length.2Collateral ligaments of the index MCP jointThe ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) is 4 to 8 mmwide and 12 to 14 mm long.3 The proper UCL(pUCL) originates at the dorsoulnar MCP head (onethird of the way down from the dorsal surface) andinserts on the proximal volar aspect of the proximalphalanx (one-quarter of the distance from volar todorsal) The proper RCL (pRCL) originates from thedorsoradial aspect (one-third of the distance from thedorsal surface) of the MCP head and inserts on thelateral tubercle of the proximal phalanx (one-quarterof the distance from volar to dorsal)4 (Fig. 2).The center of the origin of the pRCL is 40% volarto the dorsal cortex of the metacarpal head. The mostdorsal part of the attachment on the proximal phalanxis 20% volar to the dorsal cortex.5 The center ofthe insertion of the pRCL is 46% dorsal to thevolar cortex of the proximal phalanx. The most volarportion of the pRCL insertion is 20% from the volarcortex of the proximal phalanx in the index and 29%in the thumb.6 The distance between the center of theorigin and the center of the insertion of the pRCL infull flexion is 15% more than in extension (Fig. 3).PIP joint ligamentsThe proper collateral ligment (pCL) arises dorsal andproximal to the fovea on the side of the proximalphalanx head with an oblong shape and insertsbroadly on the base of the middle phalanx. Ligamentfibers are stout and parallel to the middle phalanx inall angles of PIP flexion. The volar edge is moreoblique than the dorsal edge, giving it a fan shape,Vol. 42, November 2017

906COLLATERAL LIGAMENTS OF THE DIGITS OF THE HANDFIGURE 1: Schematic of the relationship of the RCL and theoverlying abductor aponeurosis in the thumb MCP joint. Note theoblique path of the pCL from its bony origin and insertion. TheaCL travels from the proximal phalanx to the volar plate (proximal and phalanx to left). (Reprinted with permission fromEdelstein DM, Kardashian G, Lee S. Radial collateral ligamentinjuries of the thumb. J Hand Surg Am. 2008;33[5]:760e770.2)but it does not touch the volar plate at all becausethere is a bare area between the 2 structures. Deeperfibers are more linear but travel in a more obliquedirection volarly toward its insertion. With motion,the pCL pivots around the origin. If the pCL originated from the fovea, the range of motion (ROM)would be less. With flexion, the dorsal fibers of thepCL ride over the volar fibers because there is differential gliding of the 2 bundles relative to eachother. The accessory collateral ligament (aCL) fibersare flimsy and lie between the pCL and the volarplate. Oriented dorsal to volar, they insert into thedorsolateral volar plate deep to and contiguous withthe transverse retinacular ligament. The aCL suspends and stabilizes the volar plate.7PHYSIOLOGY OF THE COLLATERAL LIGAMENTSLigaments are covered by an epiligament oftenindistinguishable from the ligament itself.8 This layercontains sensory and proprioceptive nerves that aremore concentrated closer to the ligament-bone interface.9 When ligaments are strained, these nerves sendout signals either activating or inhibiting surroundingmuscle contraction around the joint to protect it fromoverstrain by modifying the forces across the ligament. This occurs in a finely tuned feedback loop.Ligaments passively stabilize joints by preventingexcessive motion and guide the joints through theirnormal motion under tensile load, distributing thoseloads so that joints maintain their physiological motion patterns. Under the microscope, the collagen fibers of ligaments appear crimped. When tension isapplied across the ligaments, they elongate andJ Hand Surg Am.rFIGURE 2: The pUCL of the index MCP joint originates at thedorsoulnar MCP head (one-third of the way down) (L) and insertson the proximal volar aspect of the proximal phalanx (one-quarterof the distance from volar to dorsal) (M). H, J, and K reflect thedimensions of the origin and insertion of the collateral ligamentrelative to its position. G, width of the origin of the collateralligament; P, distance of the edge of the insertion of the collateralligament to the joint surface; N, distance of the origin of thecollateral to the joint surface. (Reprinted with permission fromDy CJ, Tucker SM, Kok PPL, Hearns KA, Carlson MG. Anatomy of the radial collateral ligament of the index metacarpophalangeal joint. J Hand Surg Am. 2013;38[1]:124e128.5)“uncrimp” until all the fibers are all nearly linear,giving the ligament its maximum stiffness. Thus,ligaments can undergo viscoelastic elongationwithout damaging its microstructure. Further stresswill disrupt the tissue, which will undergo failurethrough tearing or plastic deformation, both of whichcan render the joint unstable.Chikenji et al in 201110 reported on the distribution and function of nerve endings (mechanoreceptors) in human DIP and PIP joint ligaments. Thesenerve endings have been recognized for decades, butit has become evident only recently that these nervereceptors play an integral part in joint proprioceptionand injury prevention by activating skeletal musclecontraction to dampen forces around the primaryrestraints.11Chikenji in 201012 reported on encapsulated nerveendings in the PIP joint. Using immunohistochemicalstaining, they found that, in the PIP joint, there is ahigh concentration of type 1 endings in the proximalvolar plate. These are Ruffini stretch receptorsresponsible for position sense. Type 2 Paccini nerveendings, which sense pressure and vibration, fire action potentials at the beginning and end of a pressurestimulus13 but are silent when the stimulus is constantin intensity. These receptors are specialized in thedetection of motion. They primarily congregate in theproximal radial-ulnar side of the volar plate, C1pulley insertion on the volar plate, and aCL.In the DIP joint, there is increased density of type 2fibers in the proximal ulnar and radial side of the volarplate where the C5 pulley and aCLs insert into thevolar plate. There are relatively few type 2 nerveendings at the distal end of the volar plate andVol. 42, November 2017

COLLATERAL LIGAMENTS OF THE DIGITS OF THE HANDFIGURE 3: Relative distances of the origin and insertion of thepRCL of the index MCP joint to the bony margins of the metacarpal head and proximal phalanges. The most dorsal part of theattachment on the proximal phalanx is 20% volar to the dorsalcortex (A). The center of the insertion of the pRCL is 46% dorsalto the volar cortex of the proximal phalanx (B). Note that thedistance from the center of the origin to the center of the insertionis greater in MCP joint flexion (C þ E) than in extension (B þ E).D, distance from the center of the collateral ligament insertion tothe dorsal cortex; F, distance of the collateral ligament insertionto the volar cortex. (Reprinted with permission from Dy CJ,Tucker SM, Kok PPL, Hearns KA, Carlson MG. Anatomy of theradial collateral ligament of the index metacarpophalangeal joint.J Hand Surg Am. 2013;38[1]:124e128.5)ligaments. Some type 1 fibers are seen in the dorsalcapsule and volar plate but not in high concentrations.COLLATERAL LIGAMENT BIOMECHANICS ANDEXPERIMENTAL LIGAMENT RUPTURE MODELSThe collateral ligaments of the MCP joint: general principlesThe ROM and stability of the MCP joint of the thumbdiffer from the fingers in that14:1. The arc of flexion of the thumb MCP is less thanthat of the fingers.2. The finger MCP joints stabilize one another bytheir proximity to one another and the deeptransverse metacarpal ligaments.3. Finger MCP joints are lax in extension and stablein flexion for grasp.4. Thumb MCP joints must maintain stability in itsfull range of flexion and extension to allow pinchand grasp.5. The main stabilizer to abduction and adductionstress is the pRCL and pUCL.6. The pRCL and pUCL are the static restraints whenthe MCP is in flexion. In contrast, the aCL andvolar plate become taut and are the static restraintwhen the MCP joint is in extension.7. Because ligamentous collagen fibers are orientedin the line of force, the direction of joint movement and the bony geometry of joint surfaces willdetermine which fibers within a particular ligament will undergo tension.28. Sesamoids stabilize the thumb in extension.15 Inthat area, there are 2 volar ligaments: MCPJ Hand Surg Am.r907ligament and sesamoid metacarpal ligament.When the sesamoid metacarpal ligament issectioned, the MCP joint is unstable in extensionwith hinging. If the pCL is sectioned as well, totalrotational instability of the MCP joint results.9. Thumbs must be evaluated for adduction (ulnardeviation) laxity with the MCP joint in neutral.16 Ifthe MCP joint is examined in pronation, one mayget a false-negative, and if examined in supination,a false-positive examination may be the result.4NORMAL COLLATERAL LIGAMENT LAXITYThe MCP jointThe cam shape of the metacarpal head results in atightening of the collateral with MCP joint flexionand results in increased joint stability. Lutsky et al17found a steady increase in tautness of both the RCLand the UCL as the angle of flexion of the MCP jointincreased from 0 to 30 to 90 . Their conclusion wasthat all collateral ligaments should be evaluated at0 and 90 . Both hands have the same stability andlaxity at all angles of flexion, so one hand can be usedfor a control assessment of the other hand.The collateral ligaments of the MCP joint of theindex finger have the greatest amount of obliquity inthe sagittal plane and that diminishes in the ulnardigits where the pCL is more in line with the longaxis of the proximal phalanx. Also, in the index andmiddle fingers, the shape of the metacarpal head,although circular in the sagittal plane, is trapezoidalin the coronal plane.18 This means that, as the MCPjoint goes into more flexion, the collateral ligamentbecomes more taut as the distance between the 2 endsof the ligament increases as it passes over the condyles of the metacarpal head. In the ring and littlefinger, the distance between the 2 ends stays the sameso that there is no increase in tightness of thecollateral ligaments with MCP flexion.19 The clinicalimplication is that the time-honored tradition of usingorthotics in fourth or fifth metacarpal neck fracturesin extreme MCP joint flexion to prevent an extensioncontracture may be unnecessary. Another implicationis that testing for collateral ligament instability shouldbe made with the MCP joint in flexion.20 In flexion ofthe MCP joint, the dorsal fibers of the pRCL andpUCL are taut while the volar fibers and the aCL arelax, whereas in extension, the reverse occurs.The PIP jointThe PIP joint is designed to undergo between 100 and110 of motion in flexion and extension and represents85% of total finger motion. It must do so whileVol. 42, November 2017

908COLLATERAL LIGAMENTS OF THE DIGITS OF THE HANDmaintaining near-maximum rigidity to radial-ulnardeviation stress in all angles of flexion, unlike theMCP joint. This stability is critical to the normalfunctioning of the PIP joint. The volar plate is afibrocartilage thickening of the joint capsule preventing PIP joint hyperextension. The checkrein ligamentsare proximal extensions of the volar plate and areattached on the sides to the aCL.Chen et al21 studied the changes in length of pCLand aCL during PIP flexion and extension. The dorsalportion of radial and ulnar pCL lengthens in flexionby up to 2 mm at 90 flexion. This is believed due tothe passing of the ligament over the condylar tubercles of the proximal phalanx head. The volar portionof the pCL lengthens in extension and shortens up to2.6 mm moving from extension to full flexion. Thiscould be due to the shape of the condyles and reflectsthe need to maintain added stability to allow pinch.The average length of the radial and ulnar aCLshortens 3 mm as the finger goes from full extensionto full flexion (like the volar pCL.) The proximal andmiddle portions of the aCL do not change throughoutthe ROM of the PIP joint.EXPERIMENTAL LIGAMENT RUPTURE MODELSMinamikawa et al22 conducted serial sectioningstudies of the PIP collateral ligament to determine therelative importance of various structures around thePIP joint in maintaining lateral stability.Lateral stress of the intact collateral produced 5 ofadduction and 9 of supination throughout the entire arcof flexion/extension. The PIP remained stable to lateralabduction when up to half of the collateral ligament wassectioned. The fully sectioned collateral ligamentcauses 20 of lateral abduction and should be considered a third-degree sprain when examined clinically. Insectioning studies, it was revealed that, even if thecollateral ligaments are totally sectioned, a remainingintact aCL, central slip,

the Hand: Anatomy, Physiology, Biomechanics, Injury, and Treatment Leo M. Rozmaryn, MD* CME INFORMATION AND DISCLOSURES The Journal of Hand Surgery will contain at least 2 clinicallyrelevant articles selected by the editor to be offered for CME in each issue. For CME credit, the participant must

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