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Study GuideforHuman Anatomy 231Andreas Vesalius, 1543Jacob Sapiro, Ph.D.Fourth Edition 2016

Table of ContentsHow to use this study guide. 2The Language of Anatomy.3Section I: Lecture Study GuideCells and Tissues . 9Integumentary System . 13Skeletal System . 16Articulations . 18Muscular System . 20Circulatory System . 23Respiratory System . 29Nervous System. 31Sense Organs . 37Endocrine System . 40Digestive System . 41Urinary System . 47Male Reproductive System . 50Female Reproductive System . 52Development . 55Section II: Laboratory Study GuideMicroscopy. 57Skeletal SystemAppendicular Skeleton . 60Axial Skeleton . 64Types Movement . 69Major Surface Landmarks . 70Muscular System . 71Cardiovascular system. 79Nervous System. 81Thoracic Cavity . 84Abdominal Cavity . 85Reproductive System . 87Development . 891

How to use this Study GuideThe purpose of this study guide is to facilitate your studying by giving you lists of many of the termsand structures that you will be responsible for knowing. This study guide is divided into two parts. The firstpart is intended primarily for use in lecture and the second part is intended primarily for use in lab. Probablythe single most important section of this study guide is the lists of clinical terms and drawings in each reviewsection. A significant portion of every lecture exam will ask you to explain the anatomical basis and clinicalsignificance of these terms. Also every exam will ask you to draw and label specific structures. The labportion of the study guide consists mostly of the terms you will be responsible for knowing on the lab exams.During the lab exams you will be expected to identify the various structures of the body and understand whythey are important.This study guide does not contain all of the information you will need to know for this class. Thereare many other terms and concepts that will be given to you in lecture and lab that you will be responsiblefor. I do not teach directly from the textbook. You do not need to read the textbook before you come to class.Your best sources for what you need to know are the lectures and lab sessions. Even though I do not testfrom the textbook, it is an important resource for helping you understand Anatomy. You will be expectedto bring the textbook with you to every lab. By the time you take a test, there should be no doubt in yourmind about what you need to know to get an A in the class. While I cannot guarantee that you will get an A,if you work hard enough, and if you know how to study, you will do well. Simply memorizing these termswill give you as much knowledge of Anatomy as memorizing the phone book will give you knowledge ofthe people listed therein. Anatomy is not about memorizing names; it is about understanding the structureof the human body. Your goals should be to understand the structural and functional importance of theseterms. If you only memorize definitions, you will earn, at best, a C. Too many students assume that thiscourse is like other classes where reading the notes three or four times before a test is sufficient to get apassing grade. Could you pass a math class by merely reading over your notes? In this class you will needto be able to do Anatomy, which takes understanding the principles and concepts, not just memorization.As you look through this study guide, you will be overwhelmed by the number of terms and conceptsyou will need to learn for this class. Don’t worry, students can, and do pass this course. The students whowill pass this class are the ones who make a commitment of time and effort. This course should be one ofthe most important things in your life this semester. The only way to be able to learn this much material isto study at least an hour or two every single day for lecture and an additional hour or two every day for lab.If you start studying a week before the test, you will fail the test. If you fall behind, you will never be ableto catch up.At the end of each section in the study guide are sample questions that are similar to the questionson the exam. You can get help, if you are having trouble answering these questions, during office hours orreview sessions. Understand that sample questions are there just to give you an idea of what might be on theexam; these questions may not appear on the exam. Also, in the review section are some drawingassignments. At least one drawing will be required on each exam. It is highly recommended that you practicethese drawings at home and bring them in to be evaluated before the exam. Students have found thesedrawings extremely helpful, so if you put a little effort into doing them, you will be rewarded with bettergrades. In addition to this study guide, you will find copies of old exams on my website.2

Introduction to the Language of AnatomyAnatomy is the language of health care. Learning Anatomy is like learning a new language. Anatomyhas its own vocabulary, which is sometimes different from English – for example: there is no such thing asa “cheek bone” or “hip bone.” Likewise, words are sometimes used differently in Anatomy; the “arm” inAnatomy includes only the region from the shoulder to the elbow; it is not the entire limb.When learning a new language, it is not enough to merely memorize definitions. One needs to learnhow words are used. If you were given a French-English dictionary, would you be able to speak French?Likewise, in this class, you need to understand how words are used, you need to understand how to formplurals, you need to recognize the genitive forms of nouns, you need to be able to distinguish betweenadjectives and nouns, etc.The number of new terms you will encounter this semester will depend on your language skillscoming into the class. If you are fluent in English or Spanish (for example, if you scored above 750 in boththe reading and writing portions of the SAT), you may only have 600 - 700 new terms to learn. If however,you are a more typical student, you may have more than 1,600 - 1,800 new terms to learn in this class. Thatcomes out to more than 100 new terms per week for a full-length semester!While there are many hundreds of new terms for you to learn in this class, that is not as onerous asit seems. The parts of the body are all named for where they are, what they look like, or what they do.Therefore, if you understand what the name means, you already understand some important fact about thatstructure. Most anatomical terms are based on just a few dozen prefixes, suffixes and roots. Almost allanatomical terms are either English words or words derived from Greek or Latin. If you learn the root of aword, you will have a much easier time. For example, the word “rectus” is Latin for “straight.” If you knowthat, then you will know that the rectus abdominis muscle is the straight muscle of the abdomen; the erectorspinae muscle straightens the spine; the rectum of the large intestine is the straight portion of the largeintestine, etc.Anatomy Course ObjectivesThis course is specifically designed for pre-health profession students. You will be learning theAnatomy you will need to know as a health care provider. By the end of the semester, you will beexpected to:1. Understand the concepts related to the organization and structure of the body2. Know the language of health care3. Be able to relate structure and function4. Understand the anatomical basis of common diseases and conditions5. Learn the study skills that will enable you to continue your studies toward a career in health care3

Forming PluralsSingular endingPlural endingExamples--a--aefossa, fossaevertebra, vertebrae--en--inalumen, luminaforamen, foramina--ex--icescortex, corticesindex, indices--is--esdiagnosis, diagnosesepiphysis, epiphyses--ix--icesmatrix, matricesappendix, appendices--nx--ngesphalanx, phalangesmeninx, meninges--um--adatum, databacterium, bacteria--us–inucleus, nucleistimulus, stimuli--y--iesovary, ovariescapillary, capillaries4

Genitive TermsThe word "genitive" means showing a possessive relationship. In English, we use an 's or the phrase"of the" to express this relationship. For example, the main artery in the arm is the “brachial artery” whichtranslates to the “arm's artery”, or the “artery of the arm". In anatomy, most genitive terms are modified nounssuch as: "pelvic," which means "of the pelvis," or "abdominal" which means "of the abdomen." Somefrequently used genitive terms are different from the commonly used nouns such as:of eartcardiackidneyrenal or al5

Common PrefixesPrefixesa, anDefinitionwithoutExampleanaerobic: without oxygenantebeforeanterior: in front of (before) the bodyantiopposed toantidepressant: a drug which fights depressionecto, exoutsideexcrete: to remove from the bodyendowithinendocardium: layer on the inside of the heartepiaboveepidermis: top-most layer of the skinhyperexcesshypertension: high blood pressurehypobelowhypodermis: layer below the dermisinterbetweenintercellular: between cellsintrawithinintracellular: within a cellmetabeyondmetacarpal: beyond the wristparanext toparanasal sinus: next to the nasal cavityperiaroundperimeter: area around an objectsubbelowsubmarine: below the ocean6

Basic Anatomical TermsAnatomical Position: upright with feet flat on floor, the arms are along the sides of the body with thepalms forward.Planes of reference:sagittal planemidsagittalparasagittalcoronal (frontal) planetransverse (cross-sectional) planeoblique planelongitudinal plane - used only in reference to tubesDirectional terms:superiorinferioranterior (ventral)posterior (dorsal)mediallateraldeep (internal)superficial (external)proximaldistal7

Review for Quiz IA. Know how to form singulars or plurals using the suffixes on page 4.B. Know how to use all of the terms on pages 5 - 7.C. Read and understand “How to use the study guide”Sample questions:1. What is the best grade you can hope to receive if you merely memorize all of the material?2. Is it necessary to have your textbook with you in lecture? In lab?3. Lecture exam questions are specifically based on material in thea. textbookb. study guidec. lecture4. Which of the following is a good study method for being successful in Anatomy?a. start studying one week before the exam.b. memorize the textbook and study guide.c. do the review drawings and turn them in to be evaluated.d. make sure you memorized the answers to the review questions.5. About how many new terms will the average student need to learn each week in a 16 weekclass?A. 30 - 50B. 50 - 75C. 75 - 100D. 100 - 1206. An intradermal injection is given where?7. An epidural injection is given the dura.8. Where is the hypogastric region?9. Is the word aquarium singular or plural? What is the other form?10. The ankle is to the knee.11. Where is the antebrachial region?8

Cells and TissuesCellular StructureOrganelles: membranous or membrane bound structures within a cell that carry out particular functionsCytoplasm: everything in a cell except the nucleusCytosol: everything in a cell except the organelles. Mostly made of water with dissolved ions, nutrients,etc.List of Organelles:1. plasma membrane: the membrane that surrounds the cell. Its structure is identical to all cellmembranes.Function: controls what enters or leaves a cell, interaction with other cells and the environment.Structure: phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, proteins. The proteins carry out almost all of the transport andsignaling functions of a cell.2. nucleus: largest organelle, stores DNA and makes RNA (RNA is used to make proteins)nucleolus: a region within the nucleus that makes ribosomes.3. mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria): makes ATP (energy for the cell) from glucose and fats in thepresence of oxygen.4. rough endoplasmic reticulum: has ribosomes - makes proteins for membranes and export from the cell.5. golgi complex: packages proteins into vesicles and sends them to the proper location.6. lysosomes: vesicles containing digestive enzymes, digest old organelles etc.7. smooth endoplasmic reticulum: metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, stores calcium, detoxifies harmfulsubstances (such as drugs, alcohol)Other structures in cytosol1. ribosomes: structures that are used to read RNA and make proteins2. cytoskeleton: protein fibers that maintain cell shape and are responsible for all movement.A. microtubules: maintain the shape of the cell and allow organelles to move within the cellB. microfilaments: provide physical strength to the cell. Made of keratinC. intermediate filaments: allows a cell to move or change shape. Made of actin and myosin9

TissuesI. epitheliaA. simple epithelia1. simple squamous epithelium2. simple cuboidal epithelium3. simple columnar epithelium4. pseudostratified epitheliumB. stratified epithelia1. stratified squamous epitheliaa. keratinized stratified squamous epitheliumb. nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium2. stratified cuboidal epithelium3. transitional epitheliumII. fibrous (proper) connective tissuesComponents of fibrous connective tissuesCells: fibroblastsleukocytes (macrophages, mast cells)adipocytesExtracellular matrix: interstitial fluidcollagen fiberselastic fibersreticular fibersBlood vesselsNervesTypes of fibrous CTA. areolar tissueB. adipose tissueC. reticular connective tissueD. dense irregular fibrous connective tissueE. dense regular fibrous connective tissueIII. special connective tissuesA. cartilages1. hyaline cartilage2. fibrocartilage3. elastic cartilageB. bone tissues1. compact bone2. spongy boneC. bloodIV. muscle tissuesA. skeletal (striated) muscleB. cardiac muscleC. smooth muscleV. nervous tissue10

Exocrine GlandsExocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts. There are many types of exocrine glands and they canbe classified using a variety of criteria.I. Classification of glands based on the type of secretiontype of glandA. serous glands (watery secretions)examplesweat glandsB. mucous glands (secrete mucus)(note the spelling of mucus vs. mucous)C. mixed glands (watery and mucous secretions)goblet cellsD. oil glands (oily or waxy secretions)sebaceous glandsII. Classification of glands based on method of secretiontype of glandA. merocrine glands (exocytosis)salivary glandsexamplemost sweat glands, mucus glandsB. apocrine glands (breaking off of apicalportion of cells)mammary glandsC. holocrine glands (entire cells breaking off)sebaceous glandsIII. Classification of glands based on structuretype of glandA. unicellular glandsexamplegoblet cellB. multicellular glands2. tubular or alveolar (acinar) glandsa. simpleb. compound glandssweat glands (simple tubular glands)mammary glands (compoundalveolar glands)11

Cells and Tissues ReviewA. Define each of the following terms and explain their anatomical basis.apoptosisbenign tumorbiopsycancercarcinomamalignant tumormetastasissarcomastem cellstumorB. Draw each of the following. Label the parts and briefly explain their functions.1. typical human cell including organelles and other structures.2. A series of cross sections showing the different types of epithelia.3. Areolar connective tissue including the cells and extracellular structures.C. Sample multiple choice questions. Choose the best answer.1. Which type of tissue is avascular?A. stratified squamous epitheliumB. elastic cartilageD. both A and BE. all of the aboveC. compact bone2. Cells that metastasize are different from normal cells in that they usually haveA. a thicker plasma membraneB. more lysosomesC. more SERD. more mitochondriaE. none of the above3. Salivary glandsA. produce mucusD. both A and BB. are merocrine glandsE. all of the above12C. are multicellular glands

Integumentary SystemSKIN:A. epidermis - stratified squamous epithelium layers:1. stratum basale2. stratum spinosum3. stratum granulosum4. stratum lucidum (found only in palms and soles)5. stratum corneumB. dermis - fibrous connective tissue1. papillary layer - areolar CT2. reticular layer - dense irregular CTC. hypodermis - adipose tissueAccessory Organs of the skin:A. hair1. arrector pili2. hair bulb3. hair papilla4. hair root5. hair shaft6. hair sheath7. sebaceous glandB. nails1. nail bed2. nail rootC. sense receptors1. Touch receptors (3 types: light touch, vibration and skin stretching)2. Pressure receptors3. Temperature receptors (heat receptors and cold receptors)4. Pain receptors, itch receptorsD. glands1. merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands2. apocrine sweat glands3. mammary glands (modified apocrine glands)4. sebaceous glands5. ceruminous glands13

Integumentary System ReviewA. Define each of the following terms and explain their anatomical basis.abrasionacneaging of skinblisterburns: first degreesecond degreethird degreecalluscellulitecyanosisdecubitus ulcerdermatitisliposuctionpsoriasisscarskin cancer:basal cell carcinomamelanomasquamous cell carcinomaskin colorskin graftsstretch markswound healingB. Draw each of the following. Label the parts and briefly explain their functions.1. Cross section of skin including all of the layers of the epidermis, dermisand hypodermis.2. Longitudinal section of a hair follicle including all of its associatedstructures (arrector pili, sebaceous glands, etc.)14

C. Sample multiple choice questions. Choose the best answer.1. The region of the skin which provides the greatest protection against abrasion is theA. hypodermisB. reticular layerC. stratum basaleD. basement membraneE. stratum corneum2. When doing DNA fingerprinting for solving crimes, live cells must be used. Which region of a hair isused to identify a suspect?A. hair bulbB. hair rootC. hair papillaD. hair shaftE. hair follicle3. Keratinocytes are found in which layer of the skin?A. stratum basaleB. stratum granulosumD. both A and BE. all of the above15C. papillary layer

Skeletal SystemTypes of cartilage1. hyaline cartilage:costal cartilage, trachea, joints2. elastic cartilage:ears, nose3. fibrocartilage:between vertebrae, pubic symphysis, kneeHistology of bonebone cells1. osteoblasts - lay down matrix2. osteocytes - mature bone cells in lacunae3. osteoclasts- demineralize matrixextracellular matrix1. tricalcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite), calcium carbonate, and other minerals2. reinforcing collagen fibersTypes of bone tissue1. compact boneosteoncentral canalsartery, vein, nerve, lymphatic vesselperforating canalscanaliculilamellaeinterstitial lamellaeosteocyteslacunae2. spongy tructure of a long bonediaphysis:compact bonemedullary cavityyellow marrowepiphysis:spongy bonered marrowepiphyseal linearticular cartilagenutrient foraminaperiosteumendosteum16

Skeletal System ReviewA. Define each of the following terms and explain their anatomical basis.bone growthbone remodelingcartilage growthfracturesclosed n (compound)spiralstressosteophytes (bone spurs)osteoporosisshin splintsB. Draw

Anatomy is the language of health care. Learning Anatomy is like learning a new language. Anatomy has its own vocabulary, which is sometimes different from English – for example: there is no such thing as a “cheek bone” or “hip bone.” Likewise, words are sometimes used differently in Anatomy; the “arm” in

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