The Application Of Life-Cycle Analysis To Waste Management
The Application of Life-Cycle Analysis toWaste ManagementCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University1
Objective Introduction – what is LCA and how is it useful– 4 phases Goal and scope defintion Inventory analysis Impact assessment interpretation– The basis for engineering of plants and systems mass balances energy budgets emission accountsCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University2
Integrated Solid Waste Management CollectionRecyclingBiological Treatment by Composting andAnaerobic DigestionWaste-to-Energy (thermal processes)Landfill with or without energy recoveryMany alternatives for solid wastemanagement have some positive aspects– large differences in costWhat is “best” for the environment?Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University3
Integrated Solid Waste Management Should we recycle ONP instead of waste-toenergy?Should we make compost or methane out ofgrass?Should we recycle to save landfill space if itactually consumes more energy than wasteburial?Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University4
Life-Cycle Analysis How do we even begin to answer thesequestions and others?––plastic versus disposable diaperscomparison of alternate product delivery systems?––plastic versus glass packagingrecyclable versus refillable bottles?Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University5
Life-Cycle AnalysisWhat is it?What can it do?What are the limitations?How to use it to make engineering decisions?Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University6
What Is It?An objective process to evaluate theenvironmental burdens associated with a:– product– process– activityBy identifying and quantifying energy andmaterials used and wastes released to theenvironment,And to evaluate and implement opportunities toeffect environmental improvements.(SETAC Code of Practice, 1991)Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University7
LCA for products LCA introduced in productmanufacturing in early 1980sFrom “cradle-to-grave”The approach has beenstandardized (ISO 14040-46)Several models are availablewith large databases:– Gabi– SimaPro– Eco-invent (database)Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University8
System boundariesCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University9
LCA- product-waste-interface In product LCA the waste is often treated superficially : tons ofwaste, tons of ash, etc. – when landfilled or burned. Recyclingbetter but not consistently treated Containers for milk were the first studies really linking product-LCAwith waste - the results varied a lot because of insufficientconsistency in boundary issues and large variation in data qualityCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University10
LCA- Waste LCA introduced in waste management in mid 1990sWaste LCA is system based, often focusing on a service: e.g.management of waste from cityFrom “bin-to-grave” or “curbside to grave”The waste in itself is often considered a “zero-burden-boundary”– Waste is the starting point, it existsLCA on waste management offers a holistic approach to assessresource issues and emissions in waste managementLCA helps avoid “problem-shifting”LCA help in decision-making when choosing among alternatives– Narrow down multiple options to a few for detailed studyCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University11
System boundaries 3 – LCA of waste“Zero burden”Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University12
LCA- 4 phases Definition of the goal and scopeInventory analysis:Preparing an inventory of inputs and outputs from all processeswithin the systemImpact assessment:Using the results of the inventory analysis to prepare environmentalimpact and resource consumption profiles for the systemInterpretation of the impact profile and resource consumptionCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University13
Elements of LCAGoal & ct applicatione.g. product developmentmarketingecolabellingpublic policy makingImpactassessmentRef. ISO 14044Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University14
LCA is an iterative exerciseInterpretationCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University15
Environmental BurdensTypical:CO2 – fossil vs. biomassNOxSOxEnergy – renewable vs. fossil?particulatesCOhydrocarbonsBODCODHeavy MetalsNutrients - NO3-N, NH3-N, PO4-PCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University16
Carbon Dioxide – fossil, biomassand storageCO2 is removed fromthe atmosphere togrow forest products(paper, wood) andagricultural products.When these productsdecay, the CO2 isreturned to theatmosphere. If theseproducts do notdecay, then thecarbon is consideredto have beensequestered.Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University17
Environmental BurdensTypical:CO2 – fossil vs. biomassNOxSOxEnergy – renewable vs. fossil?particulatesCOhydrocarbonsBODCODHeavy MetalsNutrients - NO3-N, NH3-N, PO4-PCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University18
Environmental BurdensPerhaps Others:Water consumptionSolid wasteLand useResource consumption- renewable - a tree- non-renewable - fossil fuel or an elementCost?Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University19
How Do We Start? Definition of study objective and systemboundariesA framework to rigorously define the product,process or activity to be studied:––––waste sourceswaste constituentssolid waste unit operationsremanufacturing processes & energy recoveryCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University20
Phase 1: Scope The objective of the study – the functional unitThe boundaries of the system and exchanges over boundariesThe assessment criteria to be appliedThe time scale of the studyThe technologies representing the different processesAllocation for processes entering into other systems as wellCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University21
Functional UnitThe service provided, the function of the system is defined in a wayallowing comparison – it defines the objective of the comparison 1 ton of MSW as generated 1 ton of MSW set out for collection excludes backyard composting, in-house recyclablesmanagement 1 ton of MSW (or MSW other) arriving at the landfill Packaging studies – delivery of 12 oz of juice Quantity of waste to be managed Composition of waste Duration of the waste management service Quality of the waste management (legal emission limits,requirements for residual products)Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University22
Scope 1: Example on functional unitdefinitionOld Incinerator lineWaste generationSludgeMetal recycling14000tonnesLandfillLandfill of inertsand non useableRDF wasteGlass recyclingRDF PlantRDF:Currently shippedfor co-combustionin coal plantRest of the waste30.000 tonnesMineral wastelandfillAshesWaste generationMSW40000tonnesIncinerator40,000APC residueAPC landfillIron to recyclingElectricityCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University23
Goal Definition The goal definition describes the purpose of the study and thedecision process to which it provides environmental decisionsupportThe goal should be defined as close as possible to the decisions tobe made, to the consequences of the decisionLCA is often used for comparing alternatives– Consequential vs. attributional LCA– Atrributional – average situation– Consequential – marginal changes Does a landfill tax in one state decrease landfilling or increasetransport across state boundaries with more emissions Energy Offsets Biofuels mandatesCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University24
System BoundariesInclude all that is relevant, include onlywhat is relevant. This is an iterativeprocessIssues to consider: The infinite nature of the productsystem/cut-of-limits Allocation or system expansion System expansion:- Attributional approach (substitutionis average)- Consequential approach(substitution is marginal)Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University25
Scope 2: System expansion/substitutionCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University26
Assessment criteriaWhy are we doing LCA- what do we want to protect?SETAC Working group on Impact Assessment:Four areas of protection: human health ecosystem health natural resources man-made materialsCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University27
Assessment criteria Which methodology– EDIP (Environmental Design of Industrial Products)– TRACI– And many more Global impacts:- Global warming- Ozone depletion Regional impacts:- Photochemical ozone formation- Acidification- Terrestrial and aquatic eutrophication- Human toxicity- EcotoxicityCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University28
Assessment criteria Local impacts:- Land use- Odor- Division of habitats- Radiation- Accidents Local toxicity- Stored toxicity- Spoiled groundwater resourcesCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University29
Assessment criteriaConsumption of non-renewable resources: Oil Natural gas Iron AluminumConsumption of renewable resources: Forest biomass Agricultural biomass Groundwater FreshwaterCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University30
Temporal and technological scopeWhat are the temporal dimensions for the use of the LCA? requirements on future validity of results time horizon for impacts and equivalency factors need for forecasting and trend analysis for key processes takingplace in the future– use stage– emissions from landfills Choice of technology for the different processesaverage, best available, worst case, ?Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University31
II. Inventory Analysis Quantifies resource and energy consumption,and environmental emissions associated withall processes in a system emissions are post-treatment apply to collection, MRF, landfill, combustionWill refer to this as:Life-Cycle Inventory (LCI)Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University32
Mass balance (conceptual)EmissionsWaste system:to atmosphereRemanufacturingWasteUse on landFuel, water, etc.Emission toWastewaterwater and soilCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University33
Example: Mass balanceCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University34
Mass balance (conceptual)Stack emissionsIncinerator:to atmosphereBottom ashWasteAPC-residuesAncillary products:Lime, act. carbon,water, etc.SludgeCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University35
Mass balances, energy and emissions Mass balance:– All generated waste as well as residues from treatment are kepttrack of (nothing forgotten)– All emissions can be conceptually identified by evaluating alldischarges from the waste system, intended or unintendedEnergy budgets:– All energy consumed (fuels, electricity etc.) is known– All energy containing outputs can be utilizedEmission accounts:– Direct environmental loads can be monitored, assessed andmaybe reduced– Indirect or pre-combustion emissions are includedCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University36
Example: Emission accountMeaning of 0Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University37
Remanufacturing When recyclables are converted to new products:– resource consumption and emissions areassociated with recyclables collection andremanufacture– some remanufacture from virgin is avoided andthere are implications for resource consumptionand emissions Combustion is a net producer of energy and thisoffsets energy produced from utilities Landfill gas can also be converted to energyCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University38
Material substitution - processes/creditingMaterial recycling:Processing of recovered materials – A x Saved virgin productionIf the reprocessing and the virgin production takes place at the sameplant and in the same process then estimation of the GW benefit ofrecycling is possible and likely to be correctIf the reprocessing takes place at a separate plant (e.g paper mill)there is no direct link between reprocessing and the avoided virginproductionCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University39
Example: Energy budgetCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University40
The Energy Gridother, 0.6renewabale, 2.5oil, 1.6hydro, 5.8gas, 21.5coal, 48.6nuclear, 19.4http://www.eei.org/industry issues/industry overview andstatistics/industry statistics/index.htmCopyright: Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University41
ElectricityFruergaard, T., Ekvall, T. & Astrup, T. (2009) Energy use and recovery in waste management andimplications for accounting of greenhouse gases and global warming contributions.Waste Management & Research, Special Issue , November.Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University42
Collection Activitiesnatural nsumptionCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University43
systemboundaryCollection Activitiesenvironmentalnatural resources CopyrightM.A. BarlazAnders Damgaard &consumptionMorton A. Barlaz, NC emissionsState Universityenergy44consumption
Precombustion energysystemboundaryCollection Activitiesenvironmentalnatural resources CopyrightM.A. BarlazAnders Damgaard &consumptionMorton A. Barlaz, NC emissionsState Universityenergy45consumption
A Solid Waste Management AlternativeMSW GenerationMixed WasteCollectionLandfill DisposalCopyright Morton A. Barlaz, NC State46Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State UniversityUniversity46
SWM Alternative 1 - TOTALSWM Alternative 2 - TOTALCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University47
III. Impact Assessment 4 Assessment Steps Step 1: Selection of impact categories and classification Step 2: Characterization Step 3: Normalization Step 4: Weighting Step 1-2 are mandatory, step 3-4 are voluntary (4 withcaution)Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University48
Typical LCIA Outputs Global warming Ecotoxicity Cancer/Non-cancer chronic health effectsCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University49
Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University50
4 assessment steps Step 1: Selection of impact categories and classification Step 2: Characterization Step 3: Normalization Step 4: Weighting Step 1-2 are mandatory, step 3-4 are voluntary (4 with caution)Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University51
4 assessment stepsClassification: Assignment of emissions to impact categoriesaccording to their potential effects “What does this emission contribute to?”Characterization: Quantification of contributions to the differentimpact categories “How much does it contribute?”Normalization: Expression of the impact potentials relative to areference situation “Is that much?”Valuation: Ranking, grouping or assignment of weights to the differentimpact potentials “Is it important?”Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University52
Selection and classification of impacts Refer to the scope in phase 1:– Do we still find it relevant with the original impact categoriesassumed?Midpoint versus endpointWhat contributes to which categories (software to do this for you)Copyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University53
Phase 3: Assessment criteriaCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University54
Characterization What is the impact of each substance we chose in the classificationabove– e.g. 1 kg of CH4 has a GWP of 25 kg CO2-equivalents (IPCC 4thassessment report)– These factors are calculated in the methodologies applied, and themain importance is understanding what each methodology assumes– Calculated via the following two formulasIP( j ) i Qi IF ( j ) iIP( j ) IP( j )i Qi IF ( j ) iiQ QuantityIF Impact factorJ impact categoryi substanceiCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University55
Characterization What is the impact of each substance we chose in the classificationabove– e.g. 1 kg of CH4 has a GWP of 25 kg CO2-equivalents (IPCC 4thassessment report)– Calculated via the following two formulaskg CO2ekg CO2e 10 kg CH4 25 IP( gwp) landfill 7 kg CO2 - f 1kg CO2 - fkg CH4kg CO2e0.01 kg N2O 298 260 kg CO2ekg N2OIP( gwp ) IP( gwp )landfill IP( gwp )collection IP( gwp ) mrf IP( gwp ) remfgCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University56
Normalization A way to put a comparative study on a common scale.Done by assuming an average release (or consumption) for aperson (e.g., a person equivalent)– e.g. 1 PE wrt. to global warming is 8700 kg CO2-equivalents Calculated based on:IP( j )NIP( j ) NR ( j )NIP( gwp )landfill NIP Normalized impactNR Normalization reference260 kg CO2e 0.03 PEkg CO2e8700PECopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University57
NormalizationComparing across categories which are the largest environmental impacts? is it the environmental impact or the resource consumption that islargest?Reliability control Is it realistic that the waste treatment contributes as much as thisnumber of persons?CommunicationThe person equivalent how large a part of my impact is caused by the waste treatment?The environmental space currently occupied per personCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University58
Weighting of resourcesWeighting expresses the relative scarcity of the resourceSupply horizon (SH): For how many years can the current extractioncontinue, given the known reserves?Non-renewable resources:SH(i) Known reserves of resource i (per person)Annual consumption of resource i (per person)SH(coal) 950 x 109 mton7.7 x 109 mton/yr 120 yearsreserve: economically exploitablereserve base: technically exploitable– The weighting factor is based on the reserveCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University59
4 phase: Interpretation Consider goal, scope and results togetherImprovement assessmentSensitivity analysis: Address uncertainty(boundary choices, incomplete inventories, data uncertainty)Decision support regarding environmental issues: In real world alsosocial aspects and economyCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University60
Landfill Life-Cycle AnalysisCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University61
Landfill Life-Cycle AnalysisCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University62
Limitations The decisions on what inventory parametersare most critical may be site-specific–– NOx may be more important in some areas of U.S.than others; so too for water consumption– Multi-criteria decision-makingemissions location: local/globalSimilar data across unit operations must beavailable to do meaningful comparisonsCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University63
How Can It Be Applied? Evaluation of alternate solid waste managementstrategies Improvement assessmentGuide for product design or product usePresent policy makers with sound technicalinformation in an easily understood formatThe life-cycle framework offers an opportunity topresent credible informationHopefully, we will be able to use this framework tobring science and policy togetherCopyright Anders Damgaard & Morton A. Barlaz, NC State University64
LCA- Waste LCA introduced in waste management in mid 1990s Waste LCA is system based, often focusing on a service: e.g. management of waste from city From “bin-to-grave” or “curbside to grave” The waste in itself is often considered a “zero-burden-boundary” – Waste is the starting point, it exists
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2.1 Life cycle techniques in life cycle sustainability assessment 5 2.2 (Environmental) life cycle assessment 6 2.3 Life cycle costing 14 2.4 Social life cycle assessment 22 3 Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment in Practice 34 3.1 Conducting a step-by-step life cycle sustainability assessment 34 3.2 Additional LCSA issues 41 4 A Way Forward 46
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