Proximity To Environmental Hazards: Environmental Justice .
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderProximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesBy Juliana Maantay, Jayajit Chakraborty, and Jean BrenderUS EnEnvironmentalironmental Protection AgencAgency“Strengthening Environmental Justice Research and Decision Making:A Symposium on the Science of DisproportionateEnvironmental Health Impacts”Washington, DC, March 17‐19, 2010
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderJuliana Astrud Maantay, Ph.D., M.U.P.Professor of Urban Environmental GeographyActing Chair, Environmental, Geographic, and Geological Sciences Dept.Director of the Geographic Information Science (GISc) Program, and Urban GISc LabLehman College, City University of New York , Bronx, NY 10468Jayajit Chakraborty,Chakraborty Ph.D.,Ph D M.S.MSAssociate ProfessorAssociate ChairDepartment of GeographyUniversity off Southh Floridal dTampa, FL 33620Jean D. Brender,, Ph.D.,, R.N.Professor, Dept. of Epidemiology & BiostatisticsAssociate Dean for ResearchSchool of Rural Public HealthTTexasA&M HHealthlth SScienceiCCentertCollege Station, TX 77843‐1266Source of title slide photo: Brian Morgan, Urban GISc Lab,Lehman College, CUNY, Urban Geography, cover, January 2009,“Yesterday’s ‘Cities of Tomorrow,’ Today.”
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderI. Introduction Proximity to hazards, adverse health outcomes, and disproportionate impacts Environmental Health Justice The Role of Geographic Information Science in Environmental Health Justice Research Environmental Justice Research StudiesII. Methods and Models for Measuring Disproportionate ProximityIIand Exposure to Environmental Hazards Spatial definition of Proximity and Potential Exposure to Hazards E ti ti Ch EstimatingCharacteristicst i ti off PProximatei t PPopulationsl ti Emerging Geostatistical TechniquesIII. Health outcomes and pproximityy to environmental hazards Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes and Childhood Cancers Limitations of Spatial Epidemiology Cardiovascular, Respiratory, and other Chronic DiseasesIV. Conclusions and recommendations
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderI.Introduction
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderResearch Question:Does proximity to environmental hazards result inadverse health outcomes and account for healthdisparities and if so,disparities,so how does proximitycontribute to disproportionate environmentalhealth impacts?
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderTo answer this question, we reviewed and evaluated more than 150peer‐reviewed journal articles published over a span of two decadesin several distinct bodies of literature, including environmental justice, health disparities, medical geography/health GISc,GISc and epidemiology.These papers examined residential proximity to environmentalhazards in relation to environmental justice, healthh l h disparities,diii adverse reproductive outcomes, childhood cancer, respiratory and cardiovascular conditions, and other adverse health outcomes.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderProximity to hazards, adverse health outcomes, and disproportionateimpactsMuch of the published literature has supported the hypothesis that proximityto environmental hazards translates to higher risks, including adverse healthrisks.Proximity to environmental hazards increases burdens such as: poor air quality, noise, use and storage of hazardous materialsmaterials, emissions of hazardous and toxic substances, contaminated soil and water, diminished traffic safety,safety illegal dumping, poor enforcement of environmental regulations, inadequatei dt response tto environmentalit l complaints,l i t quality‐of‐life impacts,e.g., inferior housing and fewer amenities (parks, etc.)
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderProximity to hazards, adverse health outcomes, and disproportionateimpactsThese health and quality‐of‐life impacts are visited disproportionatelyon theh most vulnerablelbl populations,l ithosehlleast liklikelyl to bbe ablebl toeffectively combat them. Not only are these populations more likely tobe exposed to these burdens, but due to material deprivation andsocial stress, they may be more susceptible to the resultant healtheffects.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderEnvironmental Health Justice“Environmental Justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of allpeople regardless of racerace, colorcolor, national originorigin, or income with respect to thedevelopment, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws,regulations, and policies. EPA has this goal for all communities and persons acrossthis Nation. It will be achieved when everyoneyenjoysj y the same degreegofprotection from environmental and health hazards and equal access to thedecision‐making process to have a healthy environment in which to live, learn,and work,” (U.S. EPA, 2009).“The EJ movement has sought to redefine environmentalism as much moreintegrated with the social needs of human populations, and, in contrast with themore eco‐centrict i environmentalit l movement,t itsit fundamentalf dt l goalsl includei l dchallenging the capitalist growth economy, as well,” (Pellow and Brulle, 2005:3).
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderEnvironmental Health JusticeResearchers and Community Scientists have expanded the definition to include: Other vulnerable groups: Children Elderly Pregnantgwomen Disabled Immune‐compromised Future generations Other unsustainable activities: rampant population growth, industrialization, pollution, consumption patterns, energy use, industrialized food production, and resource depletion
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderThe Role of Geographic Information Science (GISc) inEnvironmental Health Justice ResearchGISc is an integrated system of hardware, software, spatial andattribute databases, and expert judgment of GISc analyst.Source: Maantay, J.A., and Ziegler, J., 2006, GIS for the Urban Environment, ESRI Press, Redlands,CA
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderThe Role of Geographic Information Science (GISc) inEnvironmental Health Justice ResearchSiSincetheth latel t 1980’s,1980’ GIScGIS hash beenbusedd iin EJ researchh tto: Analyze the spatial relationship between sources of pollution andsocio‐demographic characteristics of potentially affectedpopulations; Allow for integration of multiple data sources, representation ofspatiali l datad ini map form,fandd applicationli i off spatiali l analyticall i ltechniques; Bridgeg the disciplinespof environmental jjustice and health disparitiespby showing correspondence amongst proximity to environmentalhazards, adverse health outcomes, disproportionate exposure andrisk and health disparitiesrisk,disparities.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderEnvironmental Justice Research StudiesIndependent variables: Race/Ethnicity (% NHWNHW, NHB,NHB HispanicHispanic, etcetc.)) Income (median, mean, household, per capita, etc.) % Below Poverty %% withoutou a highg schoolsc oo diplomadpo a Segregation measures (Dissimilarity Index, for instance) Population density Homeownership status % Single‐parent households Employment status/employment category (i.e., “blue collar”)Dependent variables/environmental hazard and proximity to hazard: Pollution sources (power plants, TRI facilities, high‐volume roads, Superfund sites,hazardous waste TDSFs, landfills, solid waste transfer) Presence of hazards; number or densityy of hazards; distance to hazards; measureof pollution’s magnitude (quantity, toxicity, or health risk).
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and Brender
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderSource: Maantay, J.A., 2007, Asthma and air pollution in the Bronx:Methodological and data considerations in using GIS for environmental justiceand health research. Health and Place, 13:32‐56.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderComparison of a Plume Buffer and a Proximity Buffer for an Air Pollution SourceSource: Maantay, J.A., Tu, J., Maroko. A.R., 2009. Loose‐coupling an air dispersion model and a geographicinformation system (GIS) for studying air pollution and asthma in the Bronx, New York City.International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 19(1):59‐79.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderSummary of Findings of Environmental Justice Studies Both race and SES predict a disproportionate spatial distribution of environmental burdens(e.g., McMaster et al., 1997; Apelberg, 2005; Grineski, 2007; Morello‐Frosch et al., 2001; Pastor et al.,2005; Chakraborty, 2009) . Studies focusing on air pollutants (TRI facilities, mobile sources, etc.) dominated theliterature, and most consistently predicted disproportionate burdens (e.g., Apelberg et al., 2005;Ashh andd Fetter, 2004; Buzzellill et al.,l 2003; Dolinoylandd Miranda,d 2004; Downey, 2006; Mohai,h et al.,l2009; Pastor, et al., 2004; Perlin et al, 1999). Positive spatial correspondence was found between minority/SES status and proximity tohhazardsd suchh as SuperfundSf d sitesit (Baden(B d et al.,l 2007);2007) hazardoushdwastet TSDFsTSDF (Boer(Bet al.,l 1997;1997Bolin, 2002; Fricker and Hengartner, 2001; Goldman and Fitton, 1994); solid waste landfills (Been andGupta, 1996; Higgs and Langford, 2009; Mohai and Saha, 2007; Norton, 2007); and noise pollutionfrom airports (Most et al.,al 2004).) A large proportion of minority and impoverished populationsreside in areas exposed to multiple worst‐case EHS (extremely hazardous substances)releases (Chakraborty, 2001). SomeSome early studies were inconclusive or did not show disproportionate burdens, but thismight be due to the coarse level of data aggregation used, or the limitations of the methodsused to approximate exposure (Anderton, et al., 1994; Cutter et al., 1996).
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderSummary of Findings of Environmental Justice Studies (continued) The siting of public facilities was not disproportionate by race, but the siting of privately‐owned facilities was (Norton, 2007). Studies that included qualitative assessments found instances of disproportionatedistribution of environmental factors that were not revealed through geostatistical analyses((Maantay,y, 2001;; Maroko and Maantay,y, 2009;; McMaster et al.,, 1997).) Some studies reported mixed results in the relationship between TRI density and socio‐demographic explanatory factors, which, although mostly a positive correspondence, variedsignificantlygy over spacep((Mennis and Jordan, 2005),) or could be explainedpbyy a ppattern ofresidential and occupational segregation (Boone, 2001). Some studies found inverse or non‐linear relationships between income and proximity togg and Langford,g, 2009).)noxious facilities,, termed the “halo” effect ((Higgs Studies focusing on methodological issues indicate that some methods in common usagelikely underestimate the disproportionate impacts borne by disadvantaged populations((Chakraborty,y 1997; Morello‐Frosch and Jesdale, 2006).)
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice and Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, and BrenderIIII.Methods and Models forMeasuring DisproportionateProximity and Exposure toE iEnvironmentalt lHHazardsd
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & BrenderMethods and Models for MeasuringDiDisproportionatetit ProximityP i it andd ExposureEtotEnvironmental Hazards Spatial Definition of Proximity and Potentialpto HazardsExposure Estimating Characteristics of ProximatePopulations Emerging Geostatistical Techniques
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & BrenderSpatial Definition of Proximity and Potentialpto HazardsExposureApproaches utilized in previous studies canbe classified into three categories:1. Spatial Coincidence Analysis2. Distance‐Based Analysis3. Pollution Plume Modeling
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & Brender1. Spatial Coincidence Analysis Proximity to environmental hazards defined spatially byboundaries of pre‐defined geographic entities or census units(e.g., ZIP codes, census tracts, block groups) containing a hazard. Most widely used method referred to as unit‐hazard coincidence: Identify locations of environmental hazards on a map. Classify spatial units based on presence/absence of a hazard. Compare socio‐demographic characteristics of spatial units containing ahazard (host units) to those that do not contain a hazard (non‐host units). Examples from EJ research literature: United Church of Christ 1987; Burke 1993; Hird 1993; Anderton et al. 1994;Goldman & Fitton 1994; Been 1995; Been & Gupta 1996; Cutter et al. 1996; Boeret al. 1997; Daniels & Friedman 1999; Fricker & Hengartner 2001; Boone 2002;Taquino et al. 2002; Walker et al. 2006; Baden et al. 2007.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & BrenderUnit‐Hazard Coincidence Analysis:Example Using Census Tracts
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & Brender1. Spatial Coincidence Analysis:Extending Unit‐Hazard Coincidence Instead of treating all host spatial units equally, several EJ studies haveextended the basic approach by estimating: Total number or density of hazards: Burke 1993; Cutter & Solecki 1996; Ringquist1997; Tiefenbacher & Hagelman 1999; Fricker & Hengartner 2001; Mennis & Jordan 2005. Total quantity of emitted pollutants: Bowen et al. 1995; Krisel et al. 1996; Boer et al.1997; Tiefenbacher & Hagelman 1999; Daniels & Friedman 1999; Bolin et al. 2000. ToxicityToxicity‐weightedweighted quantity of pollutants: Bowen et alal. 1995; Perlin et al.al 1995;McMaster et al. 1997; Brooks & Sethi 1997; Bolin et al. 2000; Sicotte & Swanson 2007. Key assumptions and limitations of the general approach: All individuals in a host spatial unit are equally proximate to the hazard.hazard Only individuals in the host unit are proximate to the hazard. Exact location of hazard within the host unit not considered. Potential exposure to hazards is distributed uniformly within and confinedonly to the boundary of the host unit.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & Brender2. Distance‐Based Analysis: Discrete Buffer Circular buffer analysis: address limitations of spatial coincidence approach byconstructing buffers of uniform radius around hazard sources.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & Brender2. Distance‐Based Analysis: Buffer Radius Buffer radii in EJ studies have ranged from 100 yards to 3miles, but distances of 0.5 and 1.0 mile used most frequently: Glickman 1994; Zimmerman 1994; U.S. GAO 1995; Chakraborty andArmstrong 1997; Neumann et al. 1998; Bolin et al. 2000; Baden andCoursey 2002; Boone 2002; Harner et al. 2002; Mohai and Saha 2006;M t 2007;Maantay2007 KearneyKandd KirosKi 2009;2009 MohaiM h i ett al.l 2009.2009 Several studies have used multiple circular rings at increasingdistances from hazard sources: Neumann et al. 1998; Perlin et al. 1999; Sheppard et al. 1999; Atlas et al.2002; Perlin et al. 2002; Pastor et al. 2004; Walker et al. 2006.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & Brender2. Distance‐Based Analysis: Discrete Buffer Advantages: Does not assume that the adverse effects are restricted solely tothe boundaries of spatial units hosting the hazard.pand visuallyy representedpusingg GIS software. Easilyy implemented Makes statistical comparisons between potentially exposed (insidecircle) and non‐exposed (outside circle) areas convenient. Limitations: Buffer radius is selected arbitrarily and identical for all hazards. Assumes adverse effects of a hazard are limited only to thespecified circular area or distance.distance Properties, quantities, and operational parameters of toxicemissions rarely considered. Ad erse effects are equal Adverseeq al and uniformniform in all directions (isotropic)from the hazard.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & Brender2. Distance‐Based Analysis: Continuous DistanceBased on computing the exact distance between locations ofhazards and potentially exposed populations: Use distance from the centroid of each census unit to theirnearest hazard source to estimate potential exposure: Pollock & Vittas 1995; Gragg et al. 1995; Stretesky & Lynch 1999; Margai2001 Mennis 2002;2001;2002 Downey 2006.2006 Cumulative distribution function (CDF) approach: plot distanceto hazard source vs. proportion of the population to compareexposure patterns of various sub‐groups. Waller et al. 1997; 1999; Perlin et al. 1999; Downey 2006; Chakraborty &Zandbergen 2007; Fitos & Chakraborty 2010.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & Brender2. Distance‐Based Analysis: Cumulative DistributionFunction (CDF) ApproachCumulative PercentageDistance(miles) Non-WhiteWhiteDifference050.52 5%2.5%2 9%2.9%-0.4%0 4%1.012.9%12.4%0.5%1.527.0%22.9%4.1%202.049 2%49.2%39 4%39.4%9 8%9.8%2.569.1%54.4%14.7%3.083.6%70.8%12.8%404.094 4%94.4%87 8%87.8%6 6%6.6%
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & Brender3. Pollution Plume Modeling:Geographic Plume Analysis Integrate air dispersion modeling with GIS to accurately estimateareas and populations exposed to air releases of toxic substances. Dispersion models combinedata on the quantity andphysical properties of achemicalh i l withith iinformationfti oncircumstances of release andlocal meteorological conditionsto estimateipollutantllconcentrations downwind froman emission source anddelineate a plume footprint.
Proximity to Environmental Hazards:Environmental Justice & Adverse Health OutcomesMaantay, Chakraborty, & Brender3. Pollution Plume Modeling:Geographic Plume AnalysisVarious pollutant fate‐and‐transport models used in EJ studies: Areal Locations of HazardousAtAtmospheresh(ALOHA):(ALOHA)Chakraborty & Armstrong 1997, 2001,2004; Chakraborty 2001; Margai 2001. Industrial Source Complex ShortTerm (ISC‐ST) model:Dolinoy & Miranda 2004; Fisher et al.2006; Maantay 2007; Maantay et al.2009. Ash deposition model:Bevc et al. 2007. Noise pollution model:Chakraborty et al. 1999; Most et al.200
International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 19(1):59‐79. Proximity to Environmental Hazards: Environmental Justice and Adverse Health Outcomes Maantay, Chakraborty, and Brender Summary of Findings of Environmental Justice Studies . Pastor et al., 2005; Chakraborty, 2009) . .
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