Linux Fundamentals

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Linux FundamentalsA Training ManualPhilip Carinhas, Ph.D.Fortuitous rsion of August 26, 2001

Copyright 2000-2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.Fortuitous Technologies Inc.6909A Hardy Dr.Austin, Tx 78757USAWWW: http://fortuitous.comE-mail: fundamentals@fortuitous.comThis training manual is a free book; you may reproduce and/or modify it under the termsof version 2 of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation whose website is located at http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.html.This book is distributed in the hope it will be useful, but without any warranty; withouteven the implied warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.The author encourages wide distribution of this book for personal and commercial use,provided the above copyright notice remains intact and the method adheres to the provisions of the GNU General Public License located athttp://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.htmlIn summary, you may copy and distribute this book free of charge or for a profit. No explicit permission is required from the author for reproduction of this book in any medium,physical or electronic.Note, derivative works and translations of this document must be placed under the GNUGeneral Public License, and the original copyright notice must remain intact. If you havecontributed new material to this book, you must make the source code (e.g., LATEXsource) available for your revisions.

Contents1 Introduction to Linux1.1 Linux Features . . .1.2 Multi-User Operation1.3 Why Linux? . . . . .1.4 Conventions . . . . .2 UNIX Command Line Basics2.1 Logging In To Your Account . . . . . . .2.2 Command Structure . . . . . . . . . . .2.3 The Linux Manuals and the man Utility2.4 Create, List, Copy, and Move . . . . . .2.5 I/O, Redirection, and Pipes . . . . . . .2.6 Command Line Editing . . . . . . . . . .3 The3.13.23.33.43.5Linux EnvironmentThe UNIX Shell Game . .Bash . . . . . . . . . . .Shell Variables . . . . .Choosing the Right PathGroups and Newgrp . .4 Filesystem Essentials4.1 The Linux Virtual Filesystem (VFS) . . . . . .4.2 File Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.3 Changing File Attributes with chmod . . . . . .4.4 Changing File Ownership with chown and chgrp4.5 Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Process Control5.1 Creating Foreground and Background5.2 Killing Processes With kill . . . .5.3 Managing Process Priorities . . . . .5.4 Cron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Copyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143453

6 Text Editing Tools6.1 Vi . . . . . . . . . .6.2 Editing With Pico .6.3 Editing With emacs .6.4 Using Mail . . . . . .6.5 Regular Expressions.7 Shell Scripting7.1 Shell Initialization Files7.2 Utility Shell Scripts . . .7.3 General Scripting . . . .7.4 Script Automation . . .494951525354.59596164658 Using X-Windows678.1 Customizing the X Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678.2 Window Managers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699 TCP/IP Networking Basics9.1 Network Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2 Using X-Windows Over the Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.3 Network Security for Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7374777910 Native Linux Compilers, Software, and Services81A Glossary85

Chapter 1Introduction to LinuxLinux is a computer operating system originally developed by Linus Torvalds as a researchproject. There is some interesting history about the rapid Linux evolution, but suffice itto say, Linux has come a long way in a decade.Linux runs on Intel, Mac, Sun, Dec Alpha, and several other hardware platforms.1.1Linux Features Linux is a full-featured, 32-bit multi-user/multi-tasking OS. Linux adheres to the common (POSIX) standards for UNIX . Native TCP/IP support. A mature X Windows GUI interface. Complete development environment. C, C , Java, editors, version control systems. Open Source.1.2Multi-User OperationIn UNIX and Linux , all interactions with the OS are done through designated “users”,who each have an identification ID (login name) and a password. UNIX allows differentusers to co-exist simultaneously and allows for different levels of users.The most powerful user is called superuser or “root”, and has access to all files andprocesses. The superuser does many of the system management tasks like adding regularusers, file backups, system configuration etc.Common users accounts, which perform non-system type tasks, have restricted accessto system-sensitive components to protect Linux from being accidentally or purposelyCopyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.5

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO LINUXdamaged. In a moment you will enter a user account and start exploring the Linuxfilesystem.1.3Why Linux?Linux can operate as a web, file, smb (WinNT), Novell, printer, ftp, mail, SQL, masquerading, firewall, and POP server to name but a few.It can act as a graphics, C, C , Java, Perl, Python, SQL, audio, video, and documentation, development workstation CommunicationsVideoAudioC/C /Java/Perl/DBGraphicsFileHttpdFTPSambaProxyFigure 1.1: Linux UsesLinux is a good solution for developers that need a stable and reliable platform that hasopen source code. Its not a good system for beginning developers that want a simple GUIinterface to a programming language, although Linux has many GUI software developmentinterfaces.Linux is ideal as a workstation also, and offers many customizable features not found inany other platform. It makes a good platform for dedicated workstaions that have limitedfunctions like in an educational or laboratory environment.Its may not be ideal as a workstation for beginning users who want an instantly customizable universal WYSIWYG interface. Other systems provide solutions for this need. Still,Linux becomes easier to use on a daily basis. It’s only a matter of time until Linux isaccessible by everyone.6Copyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.

1.4. CONVENTIONS1.4ConventionsIn order to take full advantage of this manual, students should execute every commandthat is listed in the text as well as do all the exercises. The following is a list of conventionssupported in this manual: bash : indicates a command entered in a terminal by the user. When you see this sign, youare expected to enter these commands exactly as indicated and check that the resultsare consistent with what is written. If you see a problem, please ask the instuctor toelaborate or clarify. tcsh : indicates commands in the tcsh shell. Most of these commands are to be completedafter hours or at home. Since Linux advocates freedom of choice, we wish to makestudents aware of this option to bash. Super : indicates a command entered by the System Administrator or Root. The student isalso expected to enter these commands in as indicated.Bold indicates a command entered at the prompts above.Big Bold TW is used to identify commands in the text.Underline indicates a file or a directory in the text.Slant indicates command options.Plain TW indicates a screen text of command output or editor.Copyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.7

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO LINUX8Copyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.

Chapter 2UNIX Command Line BasicsThe objective of this chapter is to configure the shell account so that printing, manuals,and editor functions are working normally. This will give us experience with the basiccommands, environment variables, and workhorse tools needed.2.1Logging In To Your AccountLog into your system with the login name and password given to you. You will seesomething like bash :Your system should always prompt you with the name of the shell (bash) and your loginname. This is a customizable feature in the bash shell which you are now using.The most basic command in Linux is the directory listing “ls” command.You can see the contents of your account by typing bash : ls -alYou should see files 1joejoejoejoe10245111961178Nov 9 17:06 .dtSep 30 15:19 .dtprofileDec 1 12:25 .elmNov 19 10:58 .emacsCommand StructureWe’ve already seen ls which give a directory listing the current working directory (cwd).Commands in Linux follow a general format:Command -optionsOther parametersCopyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.9

CHAPTER 2. UNIX COMMAND LINE BASICSfor example: bash : ls-l.bashrcFirst comes the command name, followed by options. Options are normally precededby a dash or minus sign. There is always a space between the command and the dash.Some commands use no options at all. After the options comes any other parameters orinformations that command may need.Let’s talk about some of the workhorse commands. Please note that these definitions arepurposely abbreviated and incomplete! Consult the man pages for each of the commandsbelow. In the commands below, parameters that are enclosed in square brackets [.] areoptional to that command. [-opts] refers to options in the style just mentioned.Special Keys Strokes:qCtrl cCtrl LCtrl aCtrl equits from many commands like more and lessalso quits out of many commandsclears the screenputs the cursor at the beginning of the command lineputs the cursor at the end of the command lineHelp, Search, Info Tools:env [-opts] [exp]find [path] [exp]info keywordlocate keywordman -k keywordman commandprintenvset [vars]whatis keywordwhereis commandwhich commandPrint environment or run a command with another environment.Find files in path using expList info help pages containing keywordLocate all files of name keyword in a databaseList man pages with keyword (same as apropos keyword)Display the manual for commandPrint environment variables (see set)Print/Set environment vars and functionsSearch the whatis DB for keywordLocate source/binary and manuals for commandDisplay path of commandText Manipulation Toolsawk gawk [pgrm][file] Filter file by pgrmcat fileDisplay contents of file without pagingclearClears the screen. Same as Ctrl Lgrep pattern fileFinds pattern in filehead fileList the first few lines of filemore fileDisplay & page the text file (See less)sed [script] fileStream edit/filter file using scripttail [-opts] fileList the trailing lines of filetr chars1 chars2 file Change chars in chars1 to chars2less fileDisplay & page the text file10Copyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.

2.3. THE LINUX MANUALS AND THE MAN UTILITYGeneral Toolscd dirChange cwd to dir (home if dir omitted)chmod perms filesChange file permissions of fileschown owner.group filesChange file owner and/or groupchshChange the default shellcp [-opts] f1 (f2 dir) Copy file f1 to f2 or directory dirdateDisplays the datekill pidKills process ID pidln [-opts] Old NewLink Old to Newlogin [username]Login to system with UID usernamelpr filePrint file on the default printerls [file]Listing for file (cwd if file omitted)mkdir dirCreates directory dirmv file1 file2Rename file1 to file2passwd [-opt] username Change passwordps [-opts]Output a list of currently active processespwdList the current working directoryrm filesRemoves filesstartxStart the X-Windowing systemtar [-opt][arch][file] Manage tar archivestelnet [host [port]]Connect to the remote hostuname [-opts]Output name and version number of OSwhoList users logged into this systemxterm [-opts]Start a brand new X-terminal window2.3The Linux Manuals and the man UtilityVirtually every command that is worth knowing has an entry in the man pages, and isaccessed by doing a man command . To get all related commands to a keyword word,use man -k keyword as in the following example: bash : man -k manualman (1)- format and display the on-line manual pagesman2html (1)- format a manual page in htmlperlxs (1)- XS language reference manualwhereis (1)- locate the binary, source, and manual page filesxman (1x)- Manual page display program for the X Window SystemCopyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.11

CHAPTER 2. UNIX COMMAND LINE BASICSWhen in doubt, use man and man -k keyword to get info on a command or UNIXrelated term. Find the man page for the ls command. ls will list directory contents: bash : man lsLS(1)NAMEFSFLS(1)ls - list directory contentsSYNOPSISls [OPTION]. [FILE].DESCRIPTIONList information about the FILEs (the current directory bydefault). Sort entries alphabetically if none of -cftuSUXnor --sort.-a, --alldo not hide entries starting with . etc .Figure 2.1: Manual Page forlsHere is a man entry for cd which changes your current working directory (folder). bash : man cdcd(n)NAMETcl Built-In Commandscd(n)cd - Change working directorySYNOPSIScd dirNameDESCRIPTIONChange the current working directory to dirName, or to thehome directory (as specified in the HOME environment variable)if dirName is not given. Returns an empty string.Figure 2.2: Manual Page for2.3.11.2.3.4.5.6.7.12cdExercises bash : man man bash : man 7 signalMan cd and look for information on “.” and “.” bash : cd . ; pwd bash : cd . ; pwd bash : cd ; pwdDiscusss what “.” and “.” are in terms of the filesystem.Copyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.

2.4. CREATE, LIST, COPY, AND MOVE2.4Create, List, Copy, and MoveThe most fundamental of all commands is to list, create, copy, move (rename), and removefiles. This section will show you the basics. Lets start with creating some files now, so wecan list them later.2.4.1Creating New FilesFile creation can be done by invoking an editor on a new filename. Before we try this,there is an easier way to make a new empty file by using the touch command. This ishow it works: bash : touch file1This will make a new file named file1 that is empty. There are many other ways tomake new files that we will see later.2.4.2Creating New DirectoriesDirectories are created with the mkdir command. Thus bash : mkdir dir1will create a new directory named dir1 located in your current working directory. Listthis file now with the “long” format we just spoke about. Check your files with bash : ls -l2.4.3Listing Files and DirectoriesBy far, listing a file is the most basic of all commands. As we have seen before, you listfiles with the ls command: bash : ls file1file1 bash : ls -l file1-rw-r--r-1 joeusers0 Oct 28 22:05 file1Using the -l flag causes a “long” listing that shows more information about file1.You list your directories in a similar way (note that the second example shows that dir1is empty).: bash : ls -ltotal 10drw-r--r-1 joe bash : ls -l dir1total 0Copyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.users0 Oct 28 22:05 dir113

CHAPTER 2. UNIX COMMAND LINE BASICS2.4.4Copying Files and DirectoriesYou can copy a file by using the cp command. The following statement bash : cp file1 file2will copy file1 to file2. Copying a folder or directory requires the use of the recursiveor -r flag indicating that cp should decend into the directory and copy all sub-files andsub-folders: bash : cp -r dir1 dir2Exercise 2.4.4:Please create a directory like this now. Explain clearly how thefollowing examples are different from the above: bash : cp file1 dir1 bash : cp -r dir1 dir2/ bash : cp -r dir1 dir2/dir32.4.5Moving Files and DirectoriesMoving a file is the same as renaming it. This allows for the possiblity that you move thefile to another directory as well: bash : mv file2 file3 bash : mv file1 dir1/file2You move a directory in EXACTLY the same way as a file: bash : mv dir1 dir32.4.6Changing DirectoriesChanging your current directory is done with the cd command: bash : cd dir1 bash : cd ./dir22.4.7Removing Files and DirectoriesNormal files are removed with the rm command: bash : rm file1Removing directories is also done with the rm command, but again you need to use the“recursive” or -r option: bash : rm -r dir1After you try the above, make sure file1 and dir1 are gone.14Copyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.

2.5. I/O, REDIRECTION, AND PIPES2.5I/O, Redirection, and PipesI/O refers to Input (I) and Output (O). This section talks about input and output ofcommands and how you can manipulate these. These prinicipals are very importantbecause they are used constantly in Unix.2.5.1Standard I/OIn UNIX , Standard Input (stdin) and Standard Output (stdout) are mechanisms that allowyou to input or output data from a command line. Simple commands like ”cat file1”send their results to stdout (normally to your terminal screen) while the word file1 is anexample of stdin which is fed to the command cat.Independent of stdin and stdout, there is the also standard error (stderr) which normallygoes to your screen when the command detects an error. Its manipulation is shell specific.Bash assigns special numbers, called File Descriptors, to stdin, stdout, and stderr:NameAbbreviationFile DescriptorStandard DeviceStandard Inputstdin0KeyboardStandard Outputstdout1ConsoleStandard Errorstderr2ConsoleTable 2.1: Bash Standard I/O2.5.2RedirectionRedirection refers to the art of redirecting input and output traffic from commands. Shellslike bash allow for redirection of stdin and stdout with the and operators respectively.As an example, lets say you want to list some files and send (redirect) the output to a fileinstead of the screen. Do it the easy way: bash : ls -al output.txtTo check the output, you can use cat (short for concatenate). cat is uselful when youwant to view short files: bash : cat output.txt-rwx-----1 carinhas users-rwx-----1 carinhas users-rwx-----1 carinhas users.Copyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.1606 Aug 17 23:14 .acrorc153 Dec 20 08:47 .bashrc3189 Dec 23 15:34 .cshrc15

CHAPTER 2. UNIX COMMAND LINE BASICSExamples of stdin redirecting: bash : cat output.txt bash : wc -l output.txt7 output.txt bash : wc -l output.txt7Note that “cat output.txt” and “cat output.txt” give the same result, butthe ”wc -l” examples give something slightly different.In bash stderr is redirected with with the 2 operator, while in tcsh, the & operator.Just relax and we will see real examples of this shortly.Linux Warning: Please note that will overwrite anything in the output file, if itexists, or create the file if it does not exist. In contrast, the operator will append tothe existing file.Here is a brief summary of the redirects:NameOperatorDescriptionRedirect stdin Feeds the file to inputRedirect stdout Creates or overwritesAppend stdout Creates or appendsRedirect stderr &Both stdout and stderrRedirect stderr2 Only stderr in bashTable 2.2: Standard Redirection I/O2.5.3PipesWhen you want to take the output of one command and use that is input into another,use the “pipe operator” . Think of actually connecting a metal pipe from one commandto another. The following example sorts a simple ls command in reverse order (do it!): bash : ls sort -r.doomrc.cshrc.bashrc.acrorc16Copyright c 2001 Fortuitous Technologies, Inc.

2.5. I/O, REDIRECTION, AND PIPES2.5.4Examples to Try bash : cat noname 2 error.txt# Sends error to error.txt bash : cat noname error.txt 2 &1 # Send stdout

Documentation C/C /Java/Perl/DB Figure 1.1: Linux Uses Linux is a good solution for developers that need a stable and reliable platform that has open source code. Its not a good system for beginning developers that want a simple GUI interface to a programming language, although Linux has many GUI software development interfaces.

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