ACADEMIC WRITING: KEY FEATURES

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ACADEMICWRITING:KEY FEATURESAnton EllowayEnglish Language Education

Fig. 1. Essay writing framework.Ursula Wingate‘Argument!’ helping students understand what essay writing is aboutJournal of English for Academic Purposes, Volume 11, Issue 2, 2012, 001

STRUCTURE

StructureThe structure of the essay should reflect how you developed yourposition.In the main body, discuss different viewpoints (compare,contrast), and explain why you are taking your position.In the conclusion, briefly summarise the previous discussion andstate your position clearly again.

StructureAcademic writing is clearly structured: it is the framework around which you construct yourassignment it enables you to present your material in a coherent, logicalmanner it gives your work a sense of direction it helps the reader to understand the text

StructureDifferent types of assignment have different overallstructures: essays - introduction, body and conclusion research reports - introduction, methods, results, discussion,conclusionBeing aware of these general conventions is am.htm

StructureCommonalities grouping similar points together dividing sections into paragraphs ensuring that each paragraph deals with a main point or theme presenting the main point or theme in a sentence at or near thebeginning of the paragraph developing the main point or theme of the paragraph in thesentences that follow ensuring that each paragraph links smoothly with the previousone

IDEASDEVELOPMENT

Ideas developmentAcademic assignments contain clearly formulated central ideadeveloped in logical manner, leading to conclusion.The central idea - usually expressed in a single sentence (your answerto the question).In answering the question, you have to follow a clear and sustained lineof reasoning. This involves identifying points in support of your centralidea and developing them using appropriate evidence. A smoothprogression from one point to the next is important.This process will lead naturally to your conclusion, which may or maynot be clear cut - the available evidence may not justify a firmconclusion. What matters is that the ‘thread of the argument’ runssmoothly from beginning to end.

CRITICALAPPROACH

Critical approach “Too much description, not enough analysis” “Don’t just tell me what happened; tell me what it means.” “Elaborate” “Needs less description and more critique.”

Critical approachAcknowledge and deal with the complexity of thesubject matter: explaining; giving reasons; examining or anticipating consequences comparing, contrasting and evaluating considering both sides of an issue taking a position supporting your claims with credible evidence investigating claims made by others and, if appropriate, questioning theevidence drawing conclusions making suggestions and recommendations

SOURCESand voices

SourcesAcademic work builds on the work of others. Whenreporting, developing, applying, criticising or evenrejecting the contributions made by others, you followwell-established conventions for citing andreferencing ing/general/academic/index.xml

Sources and voicesYour position, or stance, on the sources you cite mustbe clear to the reader. In other words, your own ‘voice’must be distinct from that of your sources.

Identifying VoicesInfants also exert control over what their carers talkabout. The topic of conversation usually involves whatthe infant is playing with or is guided by what theinfant is gazing at (Bohannon, 1993). This practicemeans that infants hear speech that concerns whatthey are already paying attention to, whichundoubtedly facilitates learning. In fact, Tomaselloand Farrar (1986) found that infants of mothers whotalked mostly about the objects of their infants’ gazesuttered their first words earlier than other infants andalso developed larger vocabularies early in life.

Identifying VoicesInfants also exert control over what their carers talkabout. The topic of conversation usually involves whatthe infant is playing with or is guided by what theinfant is gazing at (Bohannon, 1993). This practicemeans that infants hear speech that concerns whatthey are already paying attention to, whichundoubtedly facilitates learning. In fact, Tomaselloand Farrar (1986) found that infants of mothers whotalked mostly about the objects of their infants’ gazesuttered their first words earlier than other infants andalso developed larger vocabularies early in life.

Expressing your voiceThere are two main ways in which you can show yourview: Negatively - lack of mention of any other writer Positively - first person pronouns (I); comments andevaluations (two major drawbacks, of no great merit,as X insightfully states)It will always be assumed that the words or ideas are your own ifyou do not say otherwise.

Expressing your voiceWhich words show the writer’s position?Previous studies (Jones, 1997; Smith, 2006) haveindicated that the intensity of physiotherapy provisionmay affect some patient outcomes including reducedmortality following a stroke.

Expressing your voicePrevious studies (Jones, 1997; Smith, 2006) haveindicated that the intensity of physiotherapy provisionmay affect some patient outcomes including reducedmortality following a stroke.

Expressing your voiceYou can show your position with respect to aparticular issue by: Showing how confident - or not - you are with regard to yourposition. Being explicit about the relationships you are discussing. Indicating the strength of your claim.

Expressing your voiceShowing confidenceIt was clearly proposed not as a permanentarrangement, but as a temporary measure ofco-operation between different individual.This latter point was perhaps the greatestconcern for Britain's aviation planners as thewar went on.

Expressing your voiceShowing confidenceIt was clearly proposed not as a permanent arrangement, but asa temporary measure of co-operation between differentindividual.This latter point was perhaps the greatest concern for Britain'saviation planners as the war went on.Confident - use of boosters such as definitely, will, must, cannotCautious - use of hedges such as perhaps, maybe, could, might

Expressing your voiceExplicit about relationshipsHe is born into a family, he marries into a family, andhe becomes the husband and father of his ownfamily. In addition, he has a definite place of originand more relatives than he knows what to do with,and he receives a rudimentary education at theCanadian Mission School.

Expressing your voiceStrength of your claim Research suggests that we have at least four typesof memory. Research shows that we have at least four types ofmemory.

Expressing your voice

EXPLICITNESS

ExplicitnessAuthor is responsible for ensuring that the meaning of the text isclear and free from ambiguity. Anticipate the reader's questions: What is the purpose of this work? What does the author mean by this? How do these two ideas (or these two paragraphs) linktogether? Where is the evidence for this? What is the author's view about this issue?

Explicitness Explain what you intend to achieve /demonstrate /argue. Define key concepts. If you find different definitions for thesame term in the literature, explain which one you will adoptor what the word means to you. Make sure that links between ideas are clear. Use linkingwords and phrases if necessary. Ensure that every claim is supported by evidence. Take a position in relation to the issues being discussed make sure that your viewpoint is clear to the reader.

ExplicitnessAcademic writing is explicit in its signposting of the organisationof the ideas in the text: ever built in Britain. However, even by the end Partly this was because the current control of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested his own family. In addition, he has a between orders and bishops. For example, in the Northerncontext

ExplicitnessAcademic writing is explicit in its acknowledgment ofthe sources of the ideas in the text:Several writers have argued that learners benefit fromtranscribing, whether working with other people’s wordsor their own.

ExplicitnessAcademic writing is explicit in its acknowledgment ofthe sources of the ideas in the text:Several writers have argued that learners benefit fromtranscribing, whether working with other people’s words(e.g. Clennell 1999) or their own (e.g. Johnson 1996).

ACADEMICLANGUAGE & STYLEVocabularyGrammarSignpostinghedging

By making things easy for yourreaders, you help yourself toconvey information and ideas.Barass R, (1982) Students must write: a guide to better writing in coursework andexaminations. London: Methuen.

Language & styleWritten academic English is OBJECTIVE a vehicle for logical argumentation; measured; fair; accurate (not emotional; avoids exaggeration and bias; shows respect forviews of others)Written academic English is CAUTIOUS language used reflects the strength of evidence available to supportan idea or claimWritten academic English is FORMAL precise; avoids colloquialisms and slang

Language & style vocabulary1. Her paper made a tremendous contribution to the field.2. The settlers got ill after drinking polluted water.3. The proposal for regional representation was turned down.4. Doris Lessing got the Nobel Prize in 2007.5. Most of the patients reported that they put on weight aftertaking the new medication.6. The study participants reported that they got better after thefirst course of treatment.

Language & style vocabulary1. Her paper made a tremendous contribution to the field.1. Her paper made a major contribution to the field.2. The settlers got ill after drinking polluted water.2. The settlers became ill after drinking polluted water.3. The proposal for regional representation was turned down.3. The proposal for regional representation was rejected.

Language & style vocabulary4. Doris Lessing got the Nobel Prize in 2007.4. Doris Lessing was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2007.5. Most of the patients reported that they put on weight aftertaking the new medication.5. Most of the patients reported that they gained weight aftertaking the new medication.6. The study participants reported that they got better after thefirst course of treatment.6. The study participants reported that their healthimproved after the first course of treatment.

Language & style vocabulary avoid colloquialisms and idioms avoid using the verb ‘get’ avoid two-word verbs

Language & style vocabulary

Language & style vocabulary

Language & style vocabularyIncreasing numbers of students are choosing MediaStudies as their university subject. What is the reasonfor this? Many students believe

Language & style vocabularyIncreasing numbers of students are choosing Media Studies astheir university subject. What is the reason for this? Manystudents believe Increasing numbers of students are choosing Media Studies astheir university subject. The reason for this is that manystudents believe As a general rule, questions are not used in academic writing.

Language & style vocabularyThis isn't easy to do since most historians persist inspeaking of The National Government as if the samesort of government ruled from 1931 to 1940.The first National Government wasn't intended to bea coalition government in the normal sense of theterm.

Language & style vocabularyThis isn’t is not easy to do since most historians persist inspeaking of The National Government as if the same sortof government ruled from 1931 to 1940.The first National Government wasn’t was not intended tobe a coalition government in the normal sense of the term.Contracted forms are informal and are not generally used inacademic writing.

Language & style - grammarA nominalisation is a noun phrase derived fromanother word class, usually a verb.Nominalisations are useful in academic writingbecause they convey an objective, impersonal tone.Nominalisations can also make the text more concisebecause they can pack a great deal of information ina few words.

Language & style - grammarThe government banned smoking in publicplaces in 2007. Since then, fewer people havebeen admitted to hospital for smoking-relateddiseases.The ban on smoking in public places in2007 has led to a fall in hospital admissionsfor smoking-related diseases.

Language & style - grammarReproduction withvariation is a majorcharacteristic of life.Without reproduction, lifewould quickly come to anend. The earliest singlecelled organismsreproduced by duplicatingtheir genetic material andthen dividing in two.All organisms reproduceand sometimes when theyreproduce, the childrenvary. This is an importantcharacteristic of life. Iforganisms did notreproduce, life wouldquickly come to an end.How did the earliestsingle-celled organismsreproduce? Theyduplicated their geneticmaterial and then theydivided in two.

Language & style - grammarReproduction withvariation is a majorcharacteristic of life.Without reproduction, lifewould quickly come to anend. The earliest singlecelled organismsreproduced by duplicatingtheir genetic material andthen dividing in two.All organisms reproduceand sometimes when theyreproduce, the childrenvary. This is an importantcharacteristic of life. Iforganisms did notreproduce, life wouldquickly come to an end.How did the earliestsingle-celled organismsreproduce? Theyduplicated their geneticmaterial and then theydivided in two.

Language & style - grammarPre- and post-modifiersThe unexpected decline in species that had previously thrived inthe area was attributed to a sharp rise in temperature.Pre-and post-modification enables the writer to pack a lot ofinformation into a limited number of words, thus making thestyle more concise.

Language & style - grammarThere isn’t any evidencein support of this claim.The new study does notsupport many of theinitial findings.There is not muchresearch on this topic.

Language & style - grammarThere isn’t any evidencein support of this claim.There is no evidence insupport of this claim.The new study does notsupport many of theinitial findings.The new study supportsfew of the initialfindings.There is not muchresearch on this topic.There is little researchon this topic.

Language & style - grammar‘not’ negative forms Avoid the ‘not’ negative form if an alternative formis available. If you do use the ‘not’ negative form, avoidcontracted forms.

Language & style - grammarSecond person pronoun ‘you’Neither qualitative interviews nor focus groups arelikely to give you easily quantifiable, factual orobjective data.

Language & style - grammarSecond person pronoun ‘you’Neither qualitative interviews nor focus groups arelikely to give you easily quantifiable, factual orobjective data.Neither qualitative interviews nor focus groups arelikely to provide easily quantifiable, factual orobjective data.

Language & style - grammarSecond person pronoun ‘you’As you can see from the data, two-thirds ofrespondents are satisfied with the current provision.

Language & style - grammarSecond person pronoun ‘you’As you can see from the data, two-thirds ofrespondents are satisfied with the current provision.As can be seen from the data, two-thirds ofrespondents are satisfied with the current provision.

Language & style - grammarA reader will normally assume that any idea notreferenced is your own. It is therefore unnecessary tomake this explicit. "In my opinion, this a very interesting study.“ "This is a very interesting study."

Language & style - grammarI would call Wagner a subjectiveartist. What I mean is that his arthad its source in his personality; hiswork was virtually independent, Ialways feel, of the epoch in whichhe lived.

Language & style - grammarWagner was what might be called asubjective artist in that his art hadits source in his personality. Hiswork seems virtually independentof the epoch in which he lived.

Language & style - grammarHyland, K. 2002. Options of identity in academic writing. ELTJ. 5(4): 351-358

Language & style - grammarHyland, K. 2002. Options of identity in academic writing. ELTJ. 5(4): 351-358

Language & style - grammarPersonal reference?Check with the person whose responsibility it is toassess your assignment as to their feelings on thismatter!

Language & style signpostingNeed to make your writing CLEAR. How? By beingEXPLICIT.Signposting language: major signposts that signal key aspects of the work, such aspurpose, structure, author’s stance, main points, direction ofthe argument, conclusions. linking words and phrases that show connections betweensentences and paragraphs.

Language & style signpostingMajor signposts The aim of this study is to . The purpose of this thesis is to . This essay argues that . The main questions addressed in this paper are . This essay critically examines . The above discussion raises some interesting questions. This paper begins by . It will then go on to . Finally, . This chapter reviews the literature . In conclusion, .

Language & style signpostingLinking words and phrases Listing:first(ly), / second(ly), / finally, / Indicating addition or similarity:also, / besides, / in addition, / furthermore, / as well /similarly, Indicating contrast:however, / nevertheless, / on the other hand, / Giving a reason:for this reason, / because / because of / due to

Language & style signpostingLinking words and phrases Indicating result or consequence:therefore, / thus, / as a result, / consequently, Reformulating an idea:in other words, / to put it simply, / that is . Exemplifying:for example, / for instance, / to exemplify,

Language & style -transition/

Language & style - hedgingWritten academic English is cautious Water shortages trigger conflict between nations.

Language & style - hedgingWritten academic English is cautious Water shortages trigger conflict between nations. Water shortages may trigger conflict between nations.Paying due attention to accuracy helps to avoid, or at leastreduce, criticism of your work.

Language & style - hedgingThe fire was probably caused by a fault in the enginetemperature gauge.The fire could have been caused by a fault in theengine temperature gauge.Paying due attention to accuracy helps to avoid, or atleast reduce, criticism of your work.

Language & style - hedgingHedging is also used to mitigate criticism of other authors’ work,as in the examples below: Johnson (2007) appears to ignore the adverse psychologicalside-effects of this approach. The risks of the new vaccine may have been overstated.

Language & style - hedging

Language & style - hedging1. There is no difficulty in explaining how a structure such as an eye or afeather contributes to survival and reproduction; the difficulty is inthinking of a series of steps by which it could have arisen.2. For example, it may be necessary for the spider to leave the branch onwhich it is standing, climb up the stem, and walk out along anotherbranch.3. Escherichia coli, when found in conjunction withurethritis, often indicate infection higher in the uro-genital tract.4. There is experimental work to show that a week or ten days may not belong enough and a fortnight to three weeks is probably the besttheoretical period.5. Conceivably, different forms, changing at different rates and showingcontrasting combinations of characteristics, were present in differentareas.

Language & style - hedging1.There is no difficulty in explaining how a structure such as an eye or afeather contributes to su

Academic writing is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text: ever built in Britain. However, even by the end Partly this was because the current control of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested his own family. In addition, he has a between orders and bishops. For example, in the Northern context. Explicitness Academic writing is explicit .

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