The Study Of Literary Formulas - More Popular Fiction

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120George Grella. kens's murky portraits ofides of the mean streets seem as true as, say: D ICLondon or Fitzgerald's and Hemingway's ptctures of a deca lent an 1 co '.· t ' And the private detective, a "man of honor 1n all thmgs,ruptmg soCle y ·h A th ·seems as appropriate to his fiction as Natty Bumppo or t e r unankni ht. The hard-boiled detective novel, the oma'.'ce thnller, clearlyg· ·1·tcan t and meaningful relatiOnship withdemonstratesa stgnt. some of thehmost important American literature; at its best, moreover, It possesses t. ethoughtfulness and artfulness of serious literary work. A :aluable and In-terestin r form it presents a worthy alternative to the thnller of -anners,and indTcates the potency and durability of the nati?nal c ltural VISion, theAmerican Dream, as it constantly metamorphoses Into nightmare.PART THREELiterary AnalysisThe Study of Literary Formulasby fohn G. CaweltiFormulas, Genres, and ArchetypesIn general, a literary formula is a structure of narrative or dramatic conventions employed in a great number of individual works. There are twocommon usages of the term formula closely related to the conception Iwish to set forth. In fact, if we put these two conceptions together, I thinkWe will have an adequate definition of literary formulas. The first usagesimply denotes a conventional way of treating some specific thing or person.Homer's epithets-swift-footed Achilles, cloud-gathering Zeus-are commonly referred to as formulas as are a number of his standard similes andmetaphors- "his head fell speaking into the dust" -which are assumed to beconventional b:irdic formulas for filling a dactylic hexameter line. By extension, any form of cultural stereotype commonly found in literaturered-headed, hot-tempered Irishmen, brilliantly analytical and eccentricdetectives, virginal blondes, and sexy brunettes-is frequently referred toas formulaic. The imPortant thing tO note about this usage i that it refersto patterns of convention which are usually quite specific to a particularCulture and period and do not mean the same outside this specific context.Thus the nineteenth-century formulaic relation between blandness andsexual purity gave way in the twentieth century to a very different formulafor blondes. The formula of the Irishman's hot temper was particularlyCryaracteristic of English and American culture at periods where the Irishw:ere perceived as lower-class social intruders.- ,,The second common literary usage of the term formula refers to largerplot types. This is the conception of formula commonly found in thoseW.::tnuals for aspiring writers that give the recipes for twenty-one sure-fire)2,\ots- boy meets girl, boy and girl have a misunderstanding, boy gets girl. llese general plot patterns are not necessarily limited to a specific cultureG. Cawelti, "The Study of Literary Formulas." From John G. Cawelti, Adventure,'".Y'""Y and Romance: Formula Stories as Art and Popular Culture (Chicago: University ofPress, 1976), pp. 5·9, 16-18, 20-33,35-36. Reprinted with permission of John G, CaweltiUniversity of Chicago Press. John Cawelti is Professor of English and Humanities atUniversity of Chicago.

122fohn G. Caweltior period. Instead, they seem to represent story types that, if not universalin their appeal, have certainly been popular in many different cultures atmany different times. In fact, they are examples of what some scholars havecalled archetypes or patterns that appeal in many different cultures.Actually, if we look at a popular story type such as the western, the detective story, or the spy adventure, we find that it combines these two sorts·of literary phenomenon. These popular story patterns are embodimentsof archetypal story forms in terms of specific cultural materials. To create awestern involves not only some understanding of how to construct anexciting adventure story, but also how to use certain nineteenth- andtwentieth-century images and symbols such as cowboys, pioneers, outlaws,frontier towns, and saloons along with appropriate cultural themes ormyths-such as nature vs. civilization, the code of the West, or law andorder vs. outlawry-to support and give significance to the action. Thusformulas are ways in which specific cultural themes and stereOtypes becomeembodied in more universal story archetypes.The reason why formulas are constructed in this way is, I think, f3.irlystraightforward. Certain story archetypes particularly fulfill man's needSfor enjoyment and escape . But in order for these patterns to work, theymust be embodied in figures, settings, and situations that have appropriatemeanings for the culture which produces them. One cannot write a succes ful adventure story about a social character type that the culture cannotconceive in heroic terms; this is why we have so few adventure stories aboutplumbers, janitors, or streetsweepers. It is, however, certainly not inconceivable that a culture might emerge which placed a different sort of valua:.tion or interpretation on these tasks, in which case we ib.ight expect to seethe evolution of adventure story formulas about them. Certainly one can 'seesigns of such developments in the popular literature of Soviet Russia andMaoist China.A formula is a combination or synthesis of a number of specific culturalconventions with a more universal story form or archetype. It is also simila in many ways to the traditional literary conception of a genre. There i bound to be a good deal of confusion about the terms "formula" and "genre"since they are occasionally used to designate the same thing. For example,many filrri scholars and critics use the term "popular genre" to denoteliterary types like the western or the detective story that are clearly the sam as what I call formulas. On the other hand, the term is often used to describethe broadest sort of literary type such as drama, prose fiction, lyric poetry:This is clearly a very different sort of classification than that of westefri,detective story, spy story. Still another usage of genre involves conceptslike tragedy, comedy, romance, and satire. Insofar as such concepts of genreimply particular sorts of story patterns and effects, they do bear sorri resemblance to the kind of classification involved in the definition of popu.:.lar genres. Since such conceptions clearly imply universal or transcultu a The Study of Literary Formulas123conceptions of literary structure, they are examples of what I have calledarchetypes. I don't think it makes a great deal of difference whether werefer to somethi"?-K as a formula or as a popular genre, if we are clear justwhat we are talkmg about and why. In the interests of such clarification letme offer one distinction I have found useful.In defining li erary classes, it seems to me that we commonly have two elated but distmgms able purposes. First of all, we may be primarilyI"?-terested In constructmg effective generalizations about large groups ofhterary orks for the purpose of tracing historical trends or relating literaryproductiO to other. c ltural .P.attern . I .such cases we are not primarilyInt rested n the artistic qualities of Individual works but in the degree towh 1ch particular works share c.ommon characteristics that may be indicativeof Important cultu.r l tendencies. 0 the other hand, we use literary classesas a means of ?-efinmg and evaluati g the unique qualities of individualwork . I such Instances we tend to thmk of genres not simply as generalized escnptwns of a number of individual works but as a set of artistic limita IO s .and potent als. With such a conception in mind, we can evaluatemd vidual orks m. at leas two differe;nt ways: (a) by the way in which theyfulfill or fail to fulfill the Ideal potentials inherent in the genre and thereby achieve or fail to achieve the full artistic effect of that particular type ofconstruc wn. !hese a.re h7 terms in which Aristotle treats tragedy; (b) bythe way m which the Individual work deviates from the flat standard of thegenre to accomplish some unique individual expression or effect. Popular enres are often treated in this fashion, as when a critic shows that a partlcu.lar western transcends the limitations of the genre or how a film director chieves distin tiv .i dividual state ent. This is the pproach implicit n ch au eur cnhcism of the mo:Ies, where the personal qualities ofmdividual directors are measured against some conception of the standardcharacteristics of popular genres.The conce t f a formula as I have defined it is a means of generalizingt e c?aractenstxcs of large groups of individual works from certain combi atiO?s of cultural materials and archetypal story patterns. It is usefulpnmanly as a means of making historical and cultural inferences about thecollectiv fantasies sha ed by large groups of people and of identifying differences m these fantasies from one culture or period to another. When wet'?rn fr?m the cultural or historical use of the concept of formula to a con stderatwn of the artis.tic limitations and possibilities of particular formulaicpat erns, we are treatmg these for ulas as a basis for aesthetic judgments ofvanous sorts. In these cases, we might say that our generalized definition ofa formula has become a conception of a genre. Formula and genre might beb st understood not as denoting two different things, but as reflecting· twophases or aspect.s of a complex process of literary.analysis. This way of look::.I?-g at the relatiOn between formula and genre reflects the way in whichpopular genres develop. In most cases, a formulaic pattern will be in exis-

124fohn G. Caweltitence for a considerable period of time before it is conceived of by itscreators and audience as a genre. For example, the western formula wasalready clearly defined in the nineteenth cen ury, yet it as not until t etwentieth century that the western was consciOusly conceived of as a distinctive literary and cinematic genre. Similarly, though Poe created theformula for the detective story in .the 1840s and many stories and novelsmade some use of this pattern throughout the later nineteenth century, itwas probably not until after - onan Doy.le t?at the dete tiv st o becamewidely understood as a specific genre w1th Its own special hm tatwns a dpotentialities. If we conceive of a genre as a literary class that VIe ws c rta ntypical patterns in relation to their artistic limitations and potentials, t willhelp us in making a further useful clarific tion. Because the conceptiOn ofgenre involves an aesthetic approach to hterary struct';lres, It can be co?ceived either in terms of the specific formulas of a particular culture or mrelation to large r, more universal literary archetypes: there are times whenwe might wish to evaluate a particular western in relation to other western .In this case we would be using a conception of a formula-genre, or what I ssometimes more vaguely called a popular genre. We might also wish to relate this same western to some more universal generic conception such astragedy or romance. Here we would be employing an archetype-genre. · .The Artistic Characteristics of Formula LiteratureFormula literature is, first of all, a kind of literary art. Therefore, it can beanalyzed and evaluated like any other kind of literature. Two .central as ectsof formulaic structures have been generally condemned In the senousartistic thought of the last hundred years: their essential sta ndardizationand their primary relation to.the needs of escape and elaxatmn. In orde rto consider formula literature in its own terms and not simply to condemn Itout of hand, we must explore some of the aesthetic implications of thesetwo basic characteristics.While standardization is not highly valued in modern artistic ideolo ies,it is, in important ways, the essence of al! literature. Standard conventiOnsestablish a common ground between writers and audiences. Without at leastsome form of standardization, artistic communication would not be possible. But well-established conventional structures are particularly essefl,tial to the creation of formula literature and reflect the interests of a:!-1 diences, creators, and distributors.Audiences find satisfaction and a basic motional security in a famili fform; in addition, the audience's past experience with a formula gives it. asense of what to.expect in new individual examples, thereby increasing it,scapacity for understanding and enjoying he detail :'fa work. Fo; creal J:S,the formula provides a means for the rapid and efficient productiOn of Jl , The Study of Literary Formulas125works. Once familiar with the outlines of the formula, the writer who dev?t s hims lf. to th s. sort of creati ; n does. not have to make as nianydifficult artistic decisiOns as a novehst workmg without a formula. Thus,formulaic creators tend to be extremely prolific. Georges Simenon hasturned out an extraordinary number of first-rate detective novels, in addition to his less formulaic fiction. Others have an even more spectacularrecord of quantit.y production: Frederick Faust and John Creasey eachturn d out ove five hu.ndred novels under a variety of pseudonyms. Forpu?hsh rs or film .studi?s, the production of formulaic works is a highlyr t nahzed operati n With a goaranteed mmimal return as well as the possibility of large profits for particularly popular individual versions. I hav·ebeen told, for instance, that any paperback western novel is almost certainto ell enough· copies to cover expenseS and make a small profit. Manysenous novels, on the other hand, fail to make expenses and some represent ubst ti l losses. There is an inevitable tendency toward standardization1mphc1t m the economy of modern publishing and film-making, if onlybecause one successful work will inspire a number of imitations by producers hoping to share in the profits.If the production of fo mulas were only a matter of economics, we mightwell turn the whole topic over to market researchers. Even if economicconsiderations were the sole motive behind the produ'ction of formulasand I have already suggested that there are other important motives as weU-we would still need to explore the kind and level of artistic creation possible within the boundaries of a formula . [We] seek escape· from- ourconsciousness of the ultimate insecurities and ambiguities that afflict eventhe m :st se'cure sort of life: death, .the failure of love; our inability to· acc mphsh allwe had hoped for, the threat of atomic holocaust. Harry Bergernicely descnbed these two. conflicting impulses in a recent essay:Man has t o prir ml needs. First is a need for order, peace, and security,fo r protectiOn agamst the terror or confusi,on of life, for a familiar and predtctable world, and for a life which is happily more of the same . But thesecond prim l impuls is contrary to the first: man positively needs anxietyand uncertamty, thnves on confusion and risk, wants· trouble, tension,jeopardy, novelty, mystery, would be lost without enemies, is sometimeshapp est whe most miserable. Human spontaneity is eaten away by sameness.:man ts the ammal most expert at being bored}!nt e ord inary c?urse nevitably m confhct. Ifof experience, these two impulses or needs arewe seek order and s.ecurity, the result is likely tobe boredom and sameness. But rejecting order for the sake of change andnovelty brings danger and uncertainty .As Berger suggests in his essay,many central aspects of the history of culture can be. interpreted as a dynamic1Harry Berger, Jr., "Naive Consciousness and Culture Change: An Essay in H.istor'ical StruC ·turalism," Bulletin oft he Midwest Modern Language Association, VI, no. 1 (Spring, 1973), 35. ·

126fohn G. Caweltitension between these two basic impulses, a tension that Berger believes hasincreased in modern cultures with their greater novelty and change. In suchcultures men are continually and uncomfortably torn between the quest fororder a d the flight from ennui. The essence of t e expe:ience of scapeand the source of its ability to relax and please us IS, behe;e, that t temporarily synthesizes these two needs and resol ves th1s te swn. Th1s mayaccount for the curious paradox that charactenzes most hterary formulas,the fact that they are at once highly ordered and conventional and yet arepermeated with the symbols of danger, uncertainty, violence: and sex . Inreading or reviewing a formulaic work, we confront t e ultimate exci e ments of love and death, but in such a way that our basic sense of secuntyand order is intensified rather than disrupted, because, first of all, we knowthat this is an imaginary rather that a real experience, and, secon , ecausethe excitement and uncertainty are ultimately controlled and limited bythe familiar world of the formulaic structure.As we have seen, the world of a formula can be escribed as an archetypalstory pattern embodied in the image s, symb?ls', themes, and myths of aparticular culture. As shaped by the Imper tives of the expenenc of escape, these formulaic worlds are constructiOns. that an be des nbed asmoral fantasies constituting an imaginary world In which the audien e canencounter a maximum of excitement without being confronted with anoverpowering sense of the insecurity and da"?ger that accoT?pa ny suchforms of excitement in reality. Much of the artistry ?f formu aic hterat reinvolves the creator's ability to plunge us into a believable kind of xcite ment while, at the same time, confirming our confidence that In theformulaic world things always work out as we want them to. Three of theliterary devices most often used by formulaic writers. of al in s can serveas an illustration of this sort of artistic skill: suspense, IdentificatiOn, .and thecreating of a slightly removed, imaginary world. Suspense is essenti llythe writer's ability to evoke in us a temporaty sense of fear and uncertaintythat is always poi ted towar a po sible resolution . T e sin:pl st mo el ofsuspense is the chff-hange m which the pro agonist s h e IS . mediatelythreatened while the machinery of salvatiOn IS ternporanly Withheld fromus. We know, however, that the hero or heroine will be saved in some way,because he always is. In its crudest form the cliff-hanger pr sents the combination of extreme excitement within a framework of certainty and security that characterizes formulaic literature. Of course, the c u er forms ofsuspense- however effective with the young an :he unsop Ishcated- soo lose much of their power to excite more sophisticated audiences. Thoughthere are degrees of skill in producing even the simp er forms of suspe se,the better .formulaic artistS devise means of protracting and complicatingsuspense into larger, more believable structures. Good detective. storYwriters are able to maintain. a complex intellectual suspense centermg onthe possibility that a dangerous criminal might remain at large or that in-The Study of Literary Formulas127nocent people might be convicted of the crime. They sustain uncertaintyuntil the final revelation, yet at the same time assure us that the detectivehas the qualities which will eventually enable him to reach the solution.Alfred Hitchcock is; at his best, the master of a still more complex form ofsuspense that works at the very edge of escapist fantasy. In a Hitchcockfilm like Frenzy, reassurance is kept to a minimum and our anxiety is increased to the point that we seriouslY begin to wonder whether we have beenbetrayed, whether evil will triumph and the innocent will suffer. After wehave been toyed with in this way, it is a powerful experience when the herois finally plucked from the abyss.Complex as it is, the suspense in a work like Hitchcock's Frenzy is different from the kind of uncertainty characteristic of mimetic literature.The uncertainty in a mimetic work derives from the way in which it continually challenges our easy assumptions and presuppositions about

Literary Analysis The Study of Literary Formulas by fohn G. Cawelti Formulas, Genres, and Archetypes In general, a literary formula is a structure of narrative or dramatic con ventions employed in a great number of individual works. There are two common usages of the term formula closely related to the conception_ I wish to set forth.

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