IN TOO DEEP
IN TOO DEEPWHAT WE KNOW, AND DON’T KNOW,ABOUT DEEP SEABED MINING
A WORLD UNDER THREATThe deep seabed is our planet’s final frontier. Covering around halfthe Earth’s surface, it’s a largely unknown, uncharted world. Butwe’re beginning to discover that it’s a world teeming with life, andthat it exerts a major influence on the whole ocean ecosystem andon our climate.It’s also rich in metals and minerals. Someargue that mining the deep seabed is our bestbet for providing the cobalt, lithium, nickel andother minerals needed under a business-asusual scenario to enable the massive growth inthe number of electric vehicle batteries, solarpanels and wind turbines over coming decades.Proponents also suggest that mining the deepseabed could avoid the negative environmentaland social impacts of mining on land.But the risks are great. Mining would have adestructive impact on deep-sea ecosystemsand biodiversity, which could have a knockon effect on fisheries, livelihoods and foodsecurity and compromise ocean carbon, metaland nutrient cycles. It also runs counter to thetransition to a circular economy, underminingefforts to increase recycling and reduce the useof finite resources.Ultimately, moving to a low-carbon futurewill require major structural changes in oureconomy and in our lifestyles – not a rush toexploit the resources of previously untouchedareas of our planet.This briefing presents the existing knowledgeon the likely environmental and socioeconomicimpacts of deep seabed mining in the contextof global efforts to transition to a low-carboncircular economy. It draws on a detailedresearch study availablehere. NOAA OER NARTT / ShutterstockWWF INTERNATIONAL 20213
DO WE NEED MORE METALS?Material demand is expected to increase significantlyover the coming decades with the rapid growth in electricvehicles. One 2019 study, for instance, includes scenarioswhere demand for cobalt, lithium and nickel well exceedscurrent mining reserves by 2050 – in the case of cobalt byaround 420%.1 Other studies have made similar projections.But these estimations are at the upper end of the range –the same studies say that mineral demand can in fact bekept within terrestrial limits. Demand reductions of asmuch as 60-90% for almost all minerals are possible withincreased material efficiency and recycling.2The models also don’t take account of the rapidtechnological developments in material science, innovativebusiness models or policy and lifestyle changes that couldreduce demand. The electric vehicle sector in particular isyoung and rapidly evolving, with manufacturers regularlyannouncing innovations – from new solid-state batterytechnologies that could halve battery size to modularbattery rental schemes that can optimize battery utilization.WHAT IS ON THE OCEAN FLOOR?Much of the deep sea remains yet to be explored andscientifically understood – but we do know that, contraryto long-held beliefs, it’s full of life.Mining interest centres around three main marine mineralresources: polymetallic nodules, seafloor massive sulphidesand cobalt-rich crusts, although exploiting the latter iscurrently not expected to be commercially profitable.3 Thesemetal-rich geologies provide habitat for a wide variety ofmicrobial life and other larger lifeforms. In fact, the veryminerals that mining companies wish to exploit are thefoundation of deep-sea ecosystems.In the absence of sunlight, deep-sea microorganisms use theenergy from chemical reactions to absorb carbon and formorganic compounds through a process called chemosynthesis.This builds the bottom layer of the food chain for the widermarine ecosystem. It also has a significant influence onthe ocean’s ability to cycle nutrients, balance chemicalconcentrations, and absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.LIKELY IMPACTS OF DEEP SEABED MININGWHAT IS THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OFOCEAN MINING?Up to now, deep-sea ecosystems have experienced littledisturbance from human activities. But we know they arelikely to have low levels of resilience. Various characteristicsreduce their capability to withstand and recover fromdisturbance: species are long-lived and slow to reachreproductive age, and fertility rates are low. Given the slowpace of deep-sea processes, destroyed habitats are unlikelyto recover within human timescales.4Next to direct destruction of ecosystems when minerals aremined, major damage and disturbance would likely arisefrom light, noise and sediment pollution. It’s importantnot only to consider these risks at a project level butto look at their cumulative impact, since deep seabedmining would affect areas at continental scale. A singlepolymetallic nodule mining operation would pour millionsof tonnes of sediment back into the water, releasing alreadyaccumulated metal particles and smothering the habitat ofdeep-sea organisms.While deep seabed mining as an industry has beenvalued at US 2-20 billion,5 it threatens to disrupt amuch wider ocean economy, valued at US 1.5-2.4 trillionannually.6 Because marine ecosystems have no obviousphysical boundaries, deep seabed mining cannot occurin isolation and its impacts would not be limited to theocean floor. Disturbances can easily cross ecologicaland jurisdictional boundaries, leading to unexpectedand unquantifiable consequences, even on land. Lossof primary production, for example, could affect globalfisheries, threatening the main protein source of around1 billion people and the livelihoods of around 200 millionpeople, many in poor coastal communities. Loss of habitat and life-supporting substrates, killing fauna and flora Sediment plumes swirled up from mining, harming species and habitats Exposure of seabed life to toxic metals released during mining operations Harm to genetic links between different populations of deep-sea animals Habitat alteration and fragmentation through sediment, light and noise pollution Reduced primary production, affecting marine food webs Disruption of key processes affecting ecosystem functions Alteration of large-scale ocean cycles including carbon,nutrients and trace metalsDominish, E., Teske, S. & Florin, N. 2019. Responsible minerals sourcing for renewable energy. A report prepared for Earthworks by the Institute for SustainableFutures, University of Technology Sydney.1Månberger, A. & Stenqvist, B. 2018. Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition: Exploring the effects of substitutes, technological mix and development.Energy Policy 119: 226–241. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.0562European Commission. 2014. Study to investigate the state of knowledge of deep-sea mining. 2014. European Commission - DG Maritime Affairs and g en3Volkmann, S.E. & Lehnen, F. 2018. Production key figures for planning the mining of manganese nodules. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology 36(3), 360–375.doi:10.1080/1064119X.2017.1319448; FFI. 2020. An assessment of the risks and impacts of seabed mining on marine ecosystems. cms.fauna-flora.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/FFI 2020 The-risks-impacts-deep-seabed-mining Report.pdf45FFI 2020.Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Tanzer, J., Gamblin, P. & Burgener, V. 2015. Reviving the Ocean Economy: the case for action. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland; OECD.2016. The Ocean Economy in 2030. OECD, Paris, France.6WWF INTERNATIONAL 20215
NOAA OER NOAA OERLAND-BASED MINING HAS NEGATIVESOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS,SO WOULDN’T THE DEEP SEABED BE ABETTER ALTERNATIVE?Some proponents speculate that deep seabed miningwould have fewer negative impacts than land mining– which is associated with deforestation, pollution,human rights abuses and other environmental andsocial issues.However, the extent to which deep seabed mining mayreplace land-based mining is highly uncertain. It’s anascent technology and lacks scientific proof for itssupposed environmental advantages over land-basedmining. A lack of historical experience and limitedscientific understanding of deep-sea ecosystems make itimpossible to fully compare the impacts of deep seabedmining against potentially avoided impacts on land. Leong / ShutterstockDespite many historical problems, mining operationsrepresent significant sources of employment and incomefor some of the poorest countries and communities onthe planet.Deep seabed mining, on the other hand, would be highlyautomated and dominated by only a few operators whohave the required technology and capital.HOW DO DEEP SEABED MININGPROCESSES WORK?While different mineral deposits require different miningtechniques, all destroy seabed habitats by physicallyremoving sediments. Seafloor massive sulphides andcobalt-rich crusts require the use of cutting and drillingtools to break up and extract the minerals, whilepolymetallic nodules are sucked up by vacuum cleanerlike collection vehicles. The equipment is remotelyoperated, and the collected material is piped to acollection vessel on the water’s surface. From there, theminerals are processed and transported to land, while theremaining sediments are released back into the water.Operational similarities mean some project managementstandards from the offshore oil and gas industry couldbe adapted to deep seabed mining operations – but notall standards will be applicable. The same applies toenvironmental standards: while these draw on manyyears of research, this is mostly limited to the shallowwaters of the continental shelf. Deep-sea environmentsbelow 3,000m pose different challenges, and there islittle knowledge or experience of managing the impacts.WHAT ARE THE REGULATIONS AROUND DEEPSEABED MINING?Most of the deep seabed falls outside the jurisdiction ofnational governments. The United Nations Convention onthe Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) designates the deep sea andits resources as the Common Heritage of Humankind.7WWF INTERNATIONAL 2021 Jürgen Freund / WWFDeep seabed mining operations in areas beyond nationaljurisdiction are regulated by the International SeabedAuthority (ISA). This intergovernmental body is responsiblefor drafting standards and regulations on the managementand funding of environmental monitoring and safeguarding.However, monitoring and oversight of offshore deep-seaoperations is extremely costly: a single day of offshoreresearch may cost up to US 80,000.7The ISA is also tasked with establishing a benefit-sharingmechanism that will redistribute some of the financial profitsfrom deep seabed mining to projects for the global good. Whilethis may be well intentioned, having a single institution in chargeof regulating deep seabed mining while also having an interest inits financial benefits presents a possible conflict of interest.Governments face a similar conflict. Deep seabed miningoperations need to be sponsored by a state that is a signatoryto UNCLOS. These states will benefit from the success ofthe deep seabed mining operators they sponsor, but are alsoultimately responsible for pursuing liabilities against themin case of misconduct or damages.FFI 2020.7
Ultimately, the aim must not be to feed enough materialinto the system to make recycling possible, but to reducematerial demand at customer, design and production stagesto levels where recycling can cope.ANDURCLERE-PCYNGREPIRMINIMALDUMPING ANDPOLLUTIONNo wasteAll nutrients flow incycles. Almost nothing isreleased as a pollutantor dumped in a landfill.HRECONSUMERUndermines thedeep-sea’s ability todigest and recyclemetals and nutrientsBISSEAPOPAUURUndermines efforts toreduce materialintensity of productsEFSTIUndermines effortsto increaserecycling ofminerals and metalsRDesign wiselyMachines and other products aredesigned to be long-lasting and easyto repair – or ephemeral and easy tobreak down into basic components.PSECOMPOINESTIONSERVICES Creating significant pollution and environmental destruction Exploiting finite resources that are essential to the functioningof deep-sea ecosystems Upsetting ocean carbon, metals and nutrients cycles Undermining efforts to increase recycling of minerals and metals Undermining efforts to reduce material intensityin design and productionBIFINITERESOURCESPRODUCTSDEEP SEABED MINING GOES AGAINST THE PRINCIPLESOF A CLOSED-LOOP ECONOMY BY:ICRODIGALRENEWABLEENERGYTSRecycling also has high labour costs, which reduces itscompetitiveness against mining. Under current projections,producing copper through recycling in 2060 will still bearound 15% more expensive than through mining, andRENEWABLERESOURCESMother recycled non-ferrous metals will be up to 25% moreexpensive8. Adding a new supply of minerals from deepseabed mining could dampen prices and undermine longterm incentives for producers and governments to scaleup recycling efforts, especially in emerging economies.Profit-driven deep seabed mining companies will also facepressure to extract excessive quantities of minerals formany years to recoup their initial capital costs.Increases the inputof finite resourcesinto a closed-loopsystemMATERIALSMost studies agree that recycling alone won’t be enoughto meet our rapidly rising metal demands. To avoidcatastrophic climate change, we need to ramp upproduction of electric vehicles and renewable energytechnologies over the next two decades – but the longlifetime of solar cells and electric vehicle batteries keepsthe metals they contain in circulation for many years beforethey can be recycled.Use lessRenewable energy replacesfossil fuels; rental or sharingbusinesses serve more peoplewith fewer products.UWHY CAN’T WE JUST RECYCLE?OUTPUTSCreates significantpollution through sedimentand metals suspension inthe water columnSource: adaptations introduced into original illustration from Kunzig, R. 2020.Is a world without trash possible? National Geographic. . 2019. Global Material Resources Outlook to 2060: Economic Drivers and Environmental Consequences. OECD, Paris, France.WWF INTERNATIONAL 20219
DEEP SEABED MINING IS ANENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER WECAN STILL AVOIDA transformational change in how we use ocean and planetary resourcesis required if the world is to achieve the goals and aspirations, set by theUnited Nations Agenda 2030, for a better future for all. We need to steerurgently towards a truly sustainable and circular Blue Economy. With thistransformation in mind, WWF wants to see an immediate moratorium ondeep seabed mining activities, unless and until:n The environmental, social and economic risks are comprehensivelyunderstood.n It is clearly demonstrated that deep seabed mining can be managed in a waythat ensures the effective protection of the marine environment and preventsloss of biodiversity.n Where relevant, there is a framework in place to respect the free, prior,informed consent of Indigenous peoples and to ensure consent frompotentially affected communities.n Alternative sources for the responsible production and use of the metals alsofound in the deep sea have been fully explored and applied, such as reductionof demand for primary metals, a transformation to a resource-efficient,closed-loop economy, and responsible terrestrial mining.n Public consultation mechanisms have been established and there is broadand informed public support for deep seabed mining, which should fulfil theobligation to benefit humankind as a whole.n Member States reform the structure and functioning of the InternationalSeabed Authority to ensure a transparent, accountable, inclusive andenvironmentally responsible decision-making and regulatory process. naturepl.com / David Shale / WWFWWF INTERNATIONAL 202111
OUR MISSION IS TOCONSERVE NATUREAND REDUCE THE MOSTPRESSING THREATS TOTHE DIVERSITY OF LIFEON EARTH. 2021WWF and 1986 Panda Symbol are owned by WWF.All rights reserved.For contact details and further information, please visit ourinternational website at panda.org/ocean
7 FFI 2020. WWF INTERNATIONAL 2021. DEEP SEABED MINING GOES AGAINST THE PRINCIPLES OF A CLOSED-LOOP ECONOMY BY: Creating significant pollution and environmental destruction Exploiting finite resources that are essential to the functioning of deep-sea ecosystems
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Little is known about how deep-sea litter is distributed and how it accumulates, and moreover how it affects the deep-sea floor and deep-sea animals. The Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) operates many deep-sea observation tools, e.g., manned submersibles, ROVs, AUVs and deep-sea observatory systems.
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Too – Enough Too goes before adjectives and adverbs. It has a negative meaning and shows that something is more than enough, more than necessary or more than wanted. too adjective/adverb to –infinitive. *Helen is too rude to become a doctor. *He explains me too clearly for me to understand him.
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