The Risks And Impacts Of Deep-seabed Mining To Marine .

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Exec u ti ve S u m m a ryCirrate Octopus Credit NOAA, Ocean Exploration & Research, Discovering the Deep 2019The risks and impacts ofdeep-seabed mining tomarine ecosystems

The risks and im pa ct s o f de e p- s e a b e d mining t o m a ri n e ec o sy st em sForewordCredit: Gary Morrisroe/FFIThe depths of our oceans remain largely unexplored, buthumankind’s first tentative ventures into the blue abysshave revealed a hidden world full of wonders, where lifethrives under great barometric pressure and far fromthe light of the sun. The fact that life exists at all in suchunforgiving conditions, drawing energy from the chemicalsexpelled from the earth’s core and locking away carbonfrom our atmosphere, is one of the world’s uncelebratedmarvels. What is more, we are now beginning to appreciatethe extent to which life in the deep sea also affects thehealth of the planetary systems on which we all depend.The fate of the deep sea and the fate of our planet are intimately intertwined. That we shouldbe considering the destruction of these places and the multitude of species they support –before we have even understood them and the role they play in the health of our planet– is beyond reason.This report by Fauna & Flora International highlights crucial evidence about the importanceof the deep sea for the global climate and the proper functioning of ocean habitats. The rushto mine this pristine and unexplored environment risks creating terrible impacts that cannotbe reversed. We need to be guided by science when faced with decisions of such greatenvironmental consequence.Sir David Attenborough OM FRSVice-president, FFIArctic Landscape. Credit NOAA Ocean Exploration and Research, 2016F au n a & Flo ra Int er na t i on a l2

E x ec u t i v e Su m m ar yBackground and contextDeep-seabed mining: a new frontierDeep-seabed mining is a new frontier for extraction of the Earth’s natural resources, fuelled by recent discoveriesof wide-ranging mineral deposits (including polymetallic nodules, phosphorite nodules and cobalt-richferromanganese crusts) and rising demand for their use in high-tech industries including electronics and batterystorage.Currently there is a rush to establish rights and concessions and gain the exploration licences to start extractionof minerals from the deep sea, with key decisions about regulations permitting commercial deep-seabed miningplanned for mid- to late-2020. There are 30 exploration contracts awaiting permitting for exploitation, with differentcontractors at different stages of development of the technology needed to proceed. These contracts are found inthe Western Pacific, the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone, the Mid-Atlantic and the Indian Ocean.However, there remains controversy and uncertainty about the methods of deep-seabed mining: none of thetechnology is being developed to achieve “no serious harm” to the environment and decades of investment in deepseabed mining concepts has resulted in the development of machines and processes that may be highly impactful.Whilst efforts are underway to establish protection for biodiversity in the High Seas beyond national jurisdictions,deep-seabed mining has become an increasingly important geo-political issue, driving a number of diplomaticprocesses competing for seabed claims and an urgent need for high seas legislation; it is portrayed as an excitingnew economic frontier for the “blue economy”, which seeks to realise the full economic potential of the ocean.Deep-sea minerals have been touted as essential for a decarbonised future, yet it should be noted that othersources of these minerals do exist (e.g. through untapped recycling potential) as well as new technologies fordecarbonisation that are not dependent on metals.Octopus and spnges seabed Credit: NOAA3Version 1: March 2020

The risks and im pa ct s o f de e p- s e a b e d mining t o m a ri n e ec o sy st em sDiverse Assemblage Gully Canyon. Credit: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration andResearch, Deep Connections 2019Deep-sea ecosystems: a largely unexplored realmThe deep sea is a vast, pristine and largely unexplored area, with rich biodiversity and biophysical systems whichare as diverse and dynamic as terrestrial ones, but far more expansive. These systems support key processes incarbon sequestration which in turn affect global carbon cycles and climate regulation.Any changes to ocean systems can have global repercussions because the oceans are connected to one another,and water masses from different seas mix. Movements of currents and migratory animals connect all parts ofthe ocean, making conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity and ecosystems both complex anddependent on this interconnectivity.While our perceptions of life on Earth are skewed by our daily encounter with photosynthesis-supported lifeon land, the deep sea is a fundamentally different environment where sunlight does not penetrate. In deepsea environments, energy for life is derived from falling organic debris (marine snow) or generated throughchemosynthesis, where energy from inorganic chemical reactions is used to convert dissolved carbon dioxideinto the organic molecules (sugars, fats, proteins, etc.) that are the building blocks of life. This productivity fuelslife in the ocean, drives its chemical cycles, and lowers atmospheric carbon dioxide. Nutrient uptake and exportinteract with circulation to yield distinct ocean regimes.Fauna & Fl ora Internati o n a lRiftia tubeworms 2,560m. Credit: NOAAOkeanos Explorer Programme, Galapagos RiftExpedition 2011Research to date indicates the oceans are rich inbiodiversity - around 230,000 species of marineplants and animals have been scientifically described,but this represents a small fraction of the numberof species that are likely to exist. Even seeminglyinhospitable environments have been found tosupport an array of highly specialised life forms thathave evolved to thrive in extreme conditions in thedeep sea. Hotpots for biodiversity in the deep seaare often associated with deposits of rare minerals(such as cobalt, zinc and manganese) which maybe associated with key geomorphologies such ashydrothermal vents and seamounts.4

E x ec u t i v e Su m m ar yGrowing concerns around potential impacts of deep-seabed miningDetermining the environmental risks and impacts of mineral extraction depends on the knowledge, information anddata available. The deep sea remains our least explored and largest environment on the planet. A considerable levelof knowledge will therefore be required to assess and manage sustainable exploitation of deep-sea resources.The potential for environmental impacts through mining the deep seabed was recognised three decades agobut there are growing concerns about our ability to define, measure and mitigate these impacts - an issueexacerbated by our limited understanding of marine ecosystems and oceanic processes, especially in deep water,and a lack of clarity about how marine mining operations may actually harvest resources.These environmental concerns have led to calls for a moratorium on deep-seabed mining since 20111 by a rangeof non-governmental and ocean science organisations, and to date a number of national governments haveannounced their support for a moratorium, as have representatives of other marine industries, such as fisheries2.Mining of ferromanganese crusts on slopes and summits of seamounts.Drawing not to scale. Illustration adapted from Miller, Thompson, Johnston & Santillo (2018) An overview of seabed mining including the current state ofdevelopment, environmental impacts, and knowledge gaps. Frontiers in Marine Science: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00418 CC BY 4.0.Credit: Nicky Jenner/FFIProduction support vesselTransport vesselDischarge ofwaste water.Photosynthesis andprimary productivityassociatedwith seamountecosystems supportactive fisheries.Return pipeRiser andlift systemComplex food webssupport healthy marineecosystems.Rejected miningmaterial is pumpedback into the water.FlexiblepipeMarine mammals, sea turtles and largepredators rely on seamounts to feedand rest during migrations.Excavation and collection ofmaterial using tracked seafloorproduction tools (cutters,collectors and grabs).Seamounts are hotspots ofmarine biodiversity with highlevels of endemism.Depth: 800 – 2,500 meters1. -Deep-Sea-Mining-position-2011.pdf; http://www.deepseaminingoutofourdepth.org/about/2. https://www.ldac.eu/images/EN LDAC Advice on Deepsea Mining R.04.19.WG5 May2019.pdf5Version 1: March 2020

The risks and im pa ct s o f s e a b e d mining t o m ari n e ec o sy st em sPurpose and approach of this reportGiven the increased interest in exploration and exploitation of deep-seabed minerals, the rapid pace ofdevelopment of the seabed mining sector, limited knowledge of deep-sea ecosystems, and the potential foradverse impacts from deep-seabed mining, there is an urgent need for a thorough assessment of whether andhow deep-seabed mining could proceed - using the good practice principles routinely applied to terrestrial mining- without causing harm to deep-sea environments and their associated biodiversity, processes and functions.This report offers a systematic impact and risk assessment based on a Strategic Environmental Assessmentframework which draws on available information to: understand relevant existing and proposed legal andmanagement frameworks; understand the baseline environment; consider technologies and processes underdevelopment or proposed for the mining of different mineral resources on the deep-sea; assess likely impactsof mining of different minerals and their associated ecosystems; and apply possible mitigation and impactmanagement scenarios to objectively deduce the potential for no net loss or net gain for biodiversity.The key to this approach is the application of a mitigation hierarchy, which requires prioritising avoidance, followedby minimisation and restoration of impacts to reduce residual harm to the environment to achieve a no net lossor net gain outcome. In some cases, offsets or compensation are supported, however impacts to deep-seabiodiversity are considered non-offsettable and, in most cases, immitigable.The full report covers seabed mining, including mineral extractions in shallow waters to c. 180 metres depth anddeep-seabed mining below 200 metres depth, and includes shallow marine placer diamonds and aggregates, deepseabed phosphate and polymetallic minerals. This document does not deal with coastal or near-shore mining.Flurescent jellie Credit: NOAAThis document is divided into 3 sections.Part A sets the context for assessing marine mining,including exploration of the key drivers of the industryand constraints to its development, a summary ofexisting governance structures, policy and regulationrelating to the management of marine biodiversityand ecosystem service, and a strategic environmentalassessment approach. Part B contains information to describe a baselinefor marine biodiversity and ecosystem services,including an overview of current knowledge onbiodiversity and ecosystem services and thebiophysical and ecological patterns and processeswithin the marine environment that drive ecologicalfunction, health and resilience. Part C presents the major types of deep-seabedmining under development, the proposed methods formineral extraction, and the potential risks and impactsto marine biodiversity and ecosystem services.We provide an assessment of impact through theapplication of the mitigation hierarchy framework,subscribing to a no net loss outcome for biodiversity.Fauna & Fl ora Internati o n a l6

E x ec u t i v e Su m m ar yGovernance of deep-seabed miningDeepwater coral Credit: NOAAIn Part A of the document, existing governancestructures for deep-seabed mining are reviewed. Deepsea mineral deposits occur in various Maritime Zones inboth national and international jurisdictions. At present,activities that impact on the seabed, including proposedmineral extraction, are set to be regulated differentlydepending on whether they are in the Area (beyondnational jurisdiction) or on continental shelf areas (undera diversity of national jurisdictions).The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law ofthe Sea (UNCLOS) is the primary legal instrumentfor the governance of the world’s oceans and seas.UNCLOS established the jurisdictional framework forthe management of ocean space and defined the rights,duties and responsibilities of States with respect to theuse of ocean space and ocean resources - i.e. who canpermit and govern marine mining activities as mandatedby the United Nations General Assembly in 1982.There is a patchwork of international bodies and treatiesthat govern ocean resources and human activity inareas beyond any State’s national jurisdiction. Thesegovernance bodies vary greatly in their mandates.Jurisdictions often overlap, but virtually no mechanismsexist to coordinate across geographic areas andsectors and no existing governance organisation hasa comprehensive mandate to effectively manage andconserve ecosystems on the High Seas.UNCLOS dictates that the High Seas (i.e. beyond national jurisdictions) are “the common heritage of mankind”and need to be governed, managed and maintained for the benefit of all mankind. The concept of the commonheritage of mankind promotes the uniform application of the highest standards for the protection of the marineenvironment and the safe development of activities in the Area (defined as the seabed and ocean floor and subsoilthereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction).The role of seabed ecosystems in maintaining the stasis of ocean chemistry and climate regulation suggest thatthe “common heritage” of the seabed extends beyond its mineral resources to include substantial contributions tobiodiversity, ecosystem services, and climate regulation—contributions that may be less quantifiable in terms ofprojected revenue, but indispensable to human life.However, the International Seabed Authority – authorised to act on behalf of mankind in respect of the Area - hasinterpreted this common heritage as the mineral wealth of the seabed without recognition or due consideration ofthe broader suite of functions and services the deep sea provides for humanity.Currently, there is no robust, precautionary approach in place to safeguard against impacts to biodiversity, andregulations for deep-seabed mining in the High Seas are only in the early stages of development. Under currentrules it is necessary for a mining project to conduct an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), but there is littlelegislation in place to ensure minimum standards for EIAs, and no means yet of monitoring how they are conducted.7Version 1: March 2020

The risks and im pa ct s o f de e p- s e a b e d mining t o m a ri n e ec o sy st em sEstablishing the baseline environmentIn Part B, the report synthesises available information on deep-sea habitats, their associated biodiversity, mineraldeposits and biophysical processes, and considers the role of deep-sea ecosystems in planetary processes.Deep-sea ecosystems under threat from deep-seabed miningCtenophore. Credit: NOAA Office of Ocean Explorationand Research, Window to the Deep 2019Oceans contain an astounding array of habitats, fromthe intertidal zone to the hadalpelagic waters morethan 6,000 metres below the surface. Given the highlyconnected nature of the marine environment, it isimportant to consider the full range of marine habitatswithin a project’s area of influence when conducting abaseline assessment. The report considers estuarine,coastal and deep-sea habitats. Alluvial mining ofaggregates and extraction of placer diamonds aretypically associated with shallow water habitats to c.180 metres depth along the continental shelf, whereasphosphate mining and the three mineral resource typescommonly considered for deep-seabed mining areassociated with distinct types of geosystems in watersfrom 200 metres to more than 6,000 metres depth.Polymetallic (ferromanganese) nodules from abyssal plainsThough the abyssal plains4 were once assumed to be vast, desert-like environments, research shows they teem witha wide variety of microbial life and other larger creatures. Abyssal plains and the polymetallic nodules they containexert significant influence upon ocean carbon cycling, dissolution of calcium carbonate, and atmospheric carbondioxide concentrations over time scales of hundreds to thousands of years. Microbes on polymetallic nodules fixtrace metals onto the nodules through processes that are newly described but still poorly understood - contraryor in addition to theories that diagenetic and hydrogenetic processes (how oil and coal are made) are responsible.This extraction of trace metals from the ocean environment is likely to stabilise ocean chemistry and maintain healthyoceanic conditions through the balancing of metal-based elements and reducing potentially toxic metal compounds.Seafloor manganese nodules. Credit: NOAA Office ofOcean Exploration and Research, 2019 Southeastern USDeep-sea ExplorationThe chemosynthetic microbial communitiesthriving on nodules are the basis of primaryproduction and life on the abyssal plains. Theyare found within the seafloor sediment, asbacterial mats on the seafloor and even withinlarger invertebrate organisms in the community.They act as the base of the food chain for anextensive and unique collection of organisms.Polymetallic nodules are formed of concentriclayers of manganese and iron hydroxides arounda core. Nodules are targets for mining of a rangeof elements including cobalt, titanium, strontium,tellurium, and rare earth elements, copper, nicke,zinc, lithium, aluminium, and cadmium.4. Abyssal plains are underwater plains on the deep seabed usually at depths of between 3,000 and 6,000 metres.Fauna & Fl ora Internati o n a l8

E x ec u t i v e Su m m ar yCobalt-rich ferromanganese crustsRed vermillion crab. Credit: NOAA, 2019Seamount systems support deep-sea corals that thriveon and around seamounts and host more than 1,300different species of animals; some are unique to seamountsthemselves and some live only on a specific species ofcoral. Seamounts rising from the seafloor into the oceancreate obstacles that shape ocean currents and direct deep,nutrient-rich waters up the sloping sides of seamounts to thesurface. These factors combine to make seamounts fertilehabitats for diverse communities of marine life, includingsponges, crabs, sea anemones, commercially important fish,and deep-sea corals. Seamounts also support importantfisheries and a diverse range of marine megafauna. Marinemammals, sea turtles and large predators, for example, relyon seamounts to feed and rest during migrations.Seamounts are associated with cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts, a potential resource primarily for cobalt, butalso titanium, cerium, nickel, platinum, manganese, thallium and tellurium, among others. In low-temperaturemineral deposits like cobalt crusts, chemosynthetic and biochemical processes occur which help to maintain thebalance of the oceans’ chemistry and their ability to regulate the climate as well as metal concentrations.Deep-sea vents and seeps represent one of the mostphysically and chemically diverse biomes on Earth, providinga figurative buffet of chemical reactions that can fuelabundant chemosynthesis-driven microbial life. Microbialcommunities form the basis of life around these systems,supporting extensive and unique communities of highlyspecialised organisms.Tubeworms. Credit: NOAA Office of OceanExploration and Research, Gulf of Mexico2017Polymetallic sulphides fromhydrothermal vents, seeps andsulphide massive systemsGlobally, active hydrothermal vent ecosystems are rare habitats, comprising an estimated 50 square kilometres in total,which support highly specialised species and high levels of endemism, and hold significant ecological i

Vice-president, FFI 2 The risks and impacTs of deep-seabed mining To marine ecosysTems Fauna & Flora International Arctic Landscape. Credit NOAA Ocean Exploration and Research, 2016 Credit: Gary Morrisroe/FFI

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