Linking Environment And Conflict Prevention

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FULL REPORTLINKING ENVIRONMENT ANDCONFLICT PREVENTIONTHE ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONSpeaceCSSETH Zurich

CSS and swisspeace 2008Center for Security Studies (CSS)ETH ZurichSeilergraben 45-49 - SEICH – 8092 ZürichTel.: 41-44-632 40 25Fax: 41-44-632 19 nnenbergstrasse 17P.O. BoxCH - 3000 Bern 7Tel.: 41-31-330 12 12Fax: 41-31-330 12 13info@swisspeace.chwww.swisspeace.chA report bySimon A. Mason, Adrian MullerCenter for Security Studies (CSS), ETH ZürichAlbrecht Schnabel, Rina Alluri, Christian Schmidswisspeace, BernSupervised by Andreas Wenger (CSS), Victor Mauer (CSS), and Laurent Goetschel (swisspeace)This is the full report, which can be accessed at www.css.ethz.ch and www.swisspeace.ch as well as in the “CSSEnvironment and Conflict Transformation” Series (www.isn.ethz.ch “Publishing House” “Publication Series”). An18-page summary of this full report can be accessed at the same websites.Cover photoPaul Klee, Rosenwind 1922,39Ölfarbe auf Grundierung auf Papier auf Karton38,2 x 41,8 cmZentrum Paul Klee, Bern, Schenkung Livia Klee

ContentsForeword . 4Acronyms and Abbreviations . 5List of Figures and Tables . 8Executive Summary .9Introduction .12Motivation and rationale . 12Conceptual framework and methodology . 13Definitions . 13Part 1: Environment and Conflicts: State of the Art.16Introduction . 161.1 Research on the links between environment and conflict . 161.1.1 Neo-Malthusian case study approach: ‘environmental conflicts’ . 161.1.2 Political economy and statistical methodologies: ‘resource conflicts’ . 171.1.3 Post-positivist, and political ecological approaches: ‘eco-political conflicts’ . 171.1.4 Convergence of resource and conflict management approaches . 18Summary. 191.2 Conflicts over the use of natural resources and the environment. 191.2.1 Indirect use: ‘resource curse’ conflicts . 201.2.2 Direct use: local and regional ‘resource scarcity’ conflicts. 221.2.3 Environmental factors in conflict ‘hot spots’: Central Asia, Darfur . 25Summary. 321.3 Environmental trends and socio-political factors potentially affecting conflicts . 321.3.1 Food and water security. 331.3.2 Energy security . 351.3.3 Climate change. 381.3.4 Socio-economic and political conditions of environmental and resource insecurity. 39Summary. 41Conclusions of Part 1 . 421

Part 2: The Role of the United Nations .44Introduction . 442.1 The UN’s evolutionary approach in linking environment and conflict prevention. 442.1.1 From environmental protection to equitable resource access. 452.1.2 Addressing conflict prevention: the UN Secretary-General . 472.1.3 Overarching debates and their relevance to environmental conflict prevention . 48Summary. 522.2 The agencies of the UN system and their programmes . 532.2.1 Principal organs of the United Nations. 552.2.2 Advisory subsidiary body . 572.2.3 Secretariat departments and offices . 572.2.4 Programmes and funds . 602.2.5 UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) – regional commissions. 642.2.6 Inter-agency cooperation initiatives . 652.2.7 Specialized agencies . 662.2.8 Research and training institutes . 672.2.9 Other regional and international organizations. 682.2.10 Three types of conflict and UN accomplishments . 69Summary. 72Conclusions of Part 2 . 73Part 3: Environmental Conflict Prevention Measures .75Introduction . 753.1 Criteria for environmental CPMs . 753.2 Coordination, mutual learning, information and educational measures . 78Measure 1: Internal UN coordination . 78Measure 2: General information sharing initiatives. 79Measure 3: Prospective impact assessments. 80Measure 4: Guidelines . 81Measure 5: Physical and scientific information . 833.3 Measures to address indirect resource use conflicts (structural conflict prevention) . 84Transparency measures . 84Measure 6: Norms for natural resource management – financial flows. 84Measure 7: Norms for natural resource management – certification . 85Codes of Conduct . 872

Measure 8: Private companies. 87Measure 9: International groups . 88Energy Security . 88Measure 10: Fuel substitution . 89Measure 11: Reduced consumption. 903.4 Measures to address direct resource use conflicts (structural conflict prevention) . 91Food Security. 91Measure 12: Organic agriculture . 91Measure 13: Participatory development of property rights. 93Measure 14: Integrated Water Resource Management. 94Measure 15: Water Demand Management . 96Measure 16: Regulation of ‘virtual water’ trade. 97Measure 17: Transboundary freshwater regimes . 98Measure 18: Access to markets of the developed countries. 99Climate Change. 100Measure 19: Mitigation – the Kyoto Protocol . 101Measure 20: Adaptation . 1013.5 Measures to address highly escalated conflicts (operational conflict prevention). 102Dialog-oriented measures. 102Measure 21: Mixed teams of environmental experts and mediators . 103Measure 22: Multiple stakeholder dialog processes . 104Economic-political approaches. 105Measure 23: Wealth-sharing in peace agreements . 105Measure 24: Peace parks. 106Measure 25: Smart sanctions . 107Measure 26: Environment and natural resources management unit . 107Conclusions of Part 3 . 108Annex A: UN Reports, Declarations and Resolutions that have Focusedon the Environment and Conflict Prevention: .1093

ForewordThe relevance of how environmental factorsinfluence violent conflicts tends to be eitherexaggerated or underestimated. Moreover,climate change and oil are often emphasized asthe most important environmental conflictfactors as they are presently high oninternational agendas.We would like to thank the Permanent Missionof Switzerland to the United Nations, especiallyMirjana Spoljaric and Ambassador Peter Maurer,for initiating this project and giving helpfulsupport throughout; and the Political AffairsSecretariat of the Swiss Federal Department ofForeign Affairs for financing the project.This report argues that different types ofenvironment-relatedconflictsmustbeacknowledged in order to achieve appropriateresponses from the United Nations and otheractors. It underlines the need to consider lowlevel conflicts over the use of the environment ascarefully as the more highly escalated ‘oil-type’conflicts. Although they are often unspectacular– due to few battle deaths – they are neverthelesshighly relevant in their aggregation, because theyhave the potential to destabilize local areas,which in turn may have regional and globalrepercussions.We would also like to thank Jon MartinTrondalen (Compass), Julian Thomas Hottinger(Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs),David Jensen (UNEP), Silja Halle (UNEP),Tobias Hagmann (University of Zurich), DavidLanz (swisspeace), Hong Yang (EAWAG),Christine Bichsel (expert on Central Asia),Achim Maas (Adelphi Research) and MarijanZumbulev (ICG) for their valuable input thathelped shape this report. Thanks also to all theUN staff from the Mediation Support Unit ofthe DPA, UNEP New York, UNEP PCDMB,DPKO, and the Peacebuilding CommissionSupport Office, for taking the time forinterviews. Nevertheless, any errors or opinionsremain the sole responsibility of the authors.Prof. Andreas Wenger,Director, Center for Security StudiesProf. Laurent Goetschel,Director, swisspeace4

Acronyms and AbbreviationsAEENew Zealand’s Assessment of Environmental EffectsAEINThe Africa Environment Information NetworkAEO-2Africa Environment OutlookAFPUAgro-Food Processing UnitBCPRUN Development Programme’s Bureau for Crisis Prevention and RecoveryC/RSPsCountry and Regional Strategy PapersCAConventional AgricultureCAFWorld Bank Conflict Analysis FrameworkCBDConvention on Biological DiversityCCAThe Common Country AssessmentCGIARConsultative Group on International Agricultural ResearchCIDACanadian International Development AgencyCPAComprehensive Peace AgreementCPMConflict Prevention MeasureCPNConflict Prevention NetworkCPRWorld Bank Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction UnitDEWADivision of Early Warning and AssessmentDGODevelopment Group OfficeDPADepartment of Political AffairsDPKODepartment of Peacekeeping OperationsDUDepleted UraniumECAEconomic Commission for AfricaECLACEconomic Commission for Latin AmericaECOSOCEconomic and Social CouncilECPCommittee on Environmental Policy of the UNECEECPIEnvironment and Conflict Prevention InitiativeECRIEmerging and Conflict Related IssuesECSPEnvironmental Change and Security ProjectEEZExclusive Economic ZoneEIA LawChinese Environmental Impact Assessment LawEITIExtractive Industries Transparency InitiativeENMOD TreatyConvention on the Prohibition of Military or any other Hostile Use of EnvironmentalModification TechniquesENVSECEnvironment and Security ProgrammeERGExpert Reference GroupESCAPEconomic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificESCWAEconomic and Social Commission for Western AsiaEUEuropean Union5

EUEIEU Energy Initiative for Poverty Eradication and Sustainable DevelopmentEUWIEU Water InitiativeFAOFood and Agricultural OrganizationFLEGTEU Action Plan for Forest Law Enforcement Governance and TradeFSCForest Stewardship CouncilG8Germany, France, Italy, Great Britain, US, Canada, Japan, RussiaGEFGlobal Environmental FacilityGEOSSGlobal Earth Observation System of SystemsGMESGlobal Monitoring for Environment and SecurityGRIDGlobal Resource DatabaseICGInternational Crisis GroupICMMInternational Council of Mining and MetalsICPDInternational Conference on Population and DevelopmentICWEInternational Conference on Water and the Environment in IrelandIDEAInstitute for Democracy and Electoral AssistanceIECsInternational Environmental ConflictsIFRCThe International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent SocietiesILOInternational Labor OrganizationIMFInternational Monetary FundIPCCThe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeiQSGEU interservice Quality Support GroupIUCNThe World Conservation UnionIWRMIntegrated Water Resource ManagementKPKyoto ProtocolKPCSKimberley Process Certification SchemeMDGsThe Millennium Development GoalsMEAsMultilateral Environmental AgreementsMSCMarine Stewardship CouncilMSPMedium Size ProjectMSUMediation Support Unit (of the DPA)NCPSudanese National Congress PartyNCSANational Capacity Self-Assessment ProjectNEPADNew Partnership for Africa’s DevelopmentNGONon-Governmental OrganizationOAOrganic AgricultureOASOrganization of American StatesOSCEOrganization for Security and Cooperation in EuropePBSOPeacebuilding Support OfficePCBPeacebuilding Commission6

PCCPFrom Potential Conflict to Co-operation PotentialPCDMBEnvironment Programme Post-Conflict & Disaster Management BranchPCNAPost Conflict Needs AssessmentPreViewProject for Risk Evaluation, Vulnerability, Information & Early WarningRECRegional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern EuropeSCUN Security CouncilSCPSustainable Consumption and Production InitiativesSGUN Secretary-GeneralSPLM/ASudan People’s Liberation Movement/ArmySRSGUN Special Representative of the Secretary-GeneralTRIBTransboundary River Basin InitiativeUNUnited NationsUN CSDUN Commission on Sustainable DevelopmentUN DESAUN Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNCCDUN Convention to Combat DesertificationUNCEDUN Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNCLOSUN Convention on Law of the SeaUNCSDUN Commission on Sustainable DevelopmentUNDGUN Development GroupUNDPUN Development ProgrammeUNECEUN Economic Commission for EuropeUNEPUN Environment ProgrammeUNESCAPUN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificUNESCOUN Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNESCWAUN Economic and Social Commission for Western AsiaUNFCCCUN Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUNFPAUN Population FundUNHCRUN High Commissioner for RefugeesUNICEFUN Children’s FundUNIFEMUN Development Fund for WomenUNISDRUN International Strategy for Disaster ReductionUNITARUN Institute for Training and ResearchUNMISUN Mission to SudanUNUUN UniversityVPAVoluntary Partnership AgreementWaDImenaRegional Water Demand Initiative for the Middle East and North AfricaWBWorld BankWCPAWorld Commission on Protected AreasWDMWater Demand Management7

WFPUN World Food ProgrammeWMOWorld Meteorological OrganizationWSMWater Supply ManagementWSSDWorld Summit for Sustainable DevelopmentWTOWorld Trade OrganizationList of Figures and TablesFigure 1: Environmental conflict prevention measures:addressing conflicts, trends and driving actors 13Figure 2: Violent conflicts of high intensity in 2007 .26Figure 3: Map of Central Asia .28Figure 4: Map of Darfur .30Figure 5: World water scarcity map .34Figure 6: Oil and gas potential .37Figure 7: Climate change index .38Figure 8: Weak states map .39Figure 9: The gap between UN problem identification, analysis and solution making .51Figure 10: UN organizational chart .54Table 1: Different levels of escalation, dependent on how the environment is used .19Table 2: The UN Department of Political Affairs: Non-violent preventive action .58Table 3: Environmental conflict prevention measures 778

Executive SummaryThis report examines the links betweenenvironment and violent conflict, and exploresthe role

CPM Conflict Prevention Measure CPN Conflict Prevention Network CPR World Bank Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit DEWA Division of Early Warning and Assessment DGO Development Group Office DPA Department of Political Affairs DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations DU Depleted Uranium ECA Economic Commission for Africa

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