Community-Based Development In Conflict-Affected Areas Guide
COMMUNITY-BASED DEVELOPMENTIN CONFLICT-AFFECTED AREASAN INTRODUCTORY GUIDE FOR PROGRAMMINGKey IssuesLessons LearnedResources
Over the past couple of years, there has been a lot of discussion focused on preparation andplanning for reconstruction and stability operations after conflict. Many organizations, includingthe United States Agency for International Development (USAID), are focused on improvingoperations in post-conflict settings. However, USAID has also argued that the internationalcommunity should use existing tools to do a better job of reducing the potential for conflict,which USAID now defines to include a wide range of unhealthy trends like terrorism, extremismand insurgency.FROM THE DIRECTORWe know that war and violent conflict are expensive and self-perpetuating. Conflict can leadto the displacement of substantial groups of people, loss of assets like land and tools, physical and psychological trauma, fractured societal structures, and chronic economic, social andhealth problems in the long-term. The host government and/or the international communitythen bear the costs of responding to these problems and helping to repair the society. In thelong run, these costs can lead to entrenched governance problems, decreased GDP and capital flight, setting back a country’s development and sowing the seeds for future discontent anda possible return to war.A key challenge for development practitioners today is to better understand the complexities ofconflict, and then to apply that knowledge to improve conflict-laden situations through crosscutting development programming. As part of an effort of “early response” to mitigate, reduceor even prevent an outbreak of violence or conflict, the Office of Conflict Management andMitigation (CMM) in USAID’s Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance(DCHA) has commissioned a series of toolkits and program guides that can be used to program in such as way as to reduce that potential for violent conflict.Six such toolkits or program guides have already been released in such thematic areas asyouth, livelihoods, land, and gender, explaining areas connection to conflict. These documentsare designed to move from the diagnosis of a problem area to a more detailed discussion ofpotential interventions drawing from lessons elsewhere. Their overall aim is to raise awarenessamong USAID mission employees of the links between various thematic issues and conflict,and to assist USAID program development by integrating conflict prevention, mitigation andmanagement.As Director of DCHA/CMM, I am pleased to introduce this latest document on CommunityBased Development in Conflict Affected-Areas. This guide identifies the key issues and lessons learned for using this method of programming in conflict affected areas. As always,DCHA/CMM documents are “living documents” and we welcome your comments and observations to help us improve future iterations.Elisabeth KvitashviliDirectorOffice of Conflict Management and MitigationBureau for Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian AssistanceU.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)
Community-Based development programs inconflict-affected areas: An introductionSince its inception, USAID hassupported countries undergoingtransitions from war to peace andthe number of countries and theextent of the assistance have increased since the end of the ColdWar. In a post-conflict environment, elites jostle with one anotherto put their own stamp on the postconflict polity and economy whileeveryone else focuses on tryingto ensure their own security andrestore their livelihoods in theseuncertain times. In other words,post-conflict transitions lack theconditions of stability and certaintynecessary to initiate sustainabledevelopment. Yet these sameunsettled conditions provide rareopportunities to reconstitute asociety—if donors can engagewith local partners to take advantage of the opportunities as theyarise through a community-drivenprocess, which is the focus of thisdocument.Rehabilitating conflict-torn countries to avoid a return to conflictremains tough. As hostilities cometo an end and in their immediateaftermath, the goal in any postconflict environment is to stabilizethe situation. Specifically thismeans: (1) attending to humanitarian needs, including resettlement ofrefugees and internally displacedpeople; (2) restoring food securityand livelihoods; (3) improving localsecurity, including demobilizationand resettlement, human rightsprotection and reducing violentconflict; (4) restarting national andlocal economic activity; and (5)restoring basic institutions of economic and democratic governance.Community-based decision-making is a critical intervention thatcan help donors and implementingpartners see more clearly how toaddress the many attendant problems. In particular, one should remember, ownership of the recoveryprocess comes from local decisionmaking over every aspect; a criticalpoint of departure for empowerment/ownership seems to be community access to funds (insteadof NGO control). This requiresserious capacity building that goesbeyond the standard training toinclude mentoring. Checks andbalances to ensure decisions arerepresentative are important andclose monitoring of the process,not just outcome, is essential. Economic recovery should be focusedon human security and on buildingresilience in communities. Thismeans that most service-orientedprograms, which is what donors/NGOs/contractors often have tooffer, are generally not what communities need most in the shortterm (security) or in the long term(the ability to resist further oppression and to take the future in theirhands).
While the previous points focus onpost-conflict recovery, communitybased development as a methodology can and should be used in anyphase of conflict (pre-, during, orpost-). This approach focuses onlistening to local needs and desiresand attempts to incorporate goalsand objectives as identified by local communities.This toolkit draws heavily fromthe work of many talented peoplearound the world. Judith Dunbarof USAID/DCHA/CMM and CarrieGruenloh of USAID/DCHA/PVCASHA were the lead technicalwriters. Jacqueline Vavra of Management Systems, Inc. completedthe initial draft of the guide. Theguide draws heavily on the work ofUSAID’s Office of Transition Initiatives and the experience of USAID/Washington staff S. Tjip Walker,Alexandria Panehal, Faye Haselkorn, David Black, and CarlisleLevine. Mission directors and fieldstaff from USAID also contributedthrough several conferences andconversations, bringing importantlessons from the field to the guide.It also draws on the invaluableexpertise of Mary Anderson of theCollaborative for Development Action and Peter Uvin of the Institutefor Human Security at the FletcherSchool of Law and Diplomacy,Tufts University. Colleagues atthe World Bank, particularly IanBannon, Kim Maynard, Dan Owenand Mojdan Sami, contributedtheir experience and knowledge tothe guide through several meet-ings, reading drafts, and helpingUSAID co-host the 15th meeting ofthe Conflict Prevention and PostConflict Reconstruction Network inWashington D.C. in October 2005.Our colleagues from the donorcommunity contributed their expertise and experience at that meeting. USAID implementing partnersoffered important input and critiques of drafts through meetingsand consultations with InterActionand the Society for InternationalDevelopment in Washington, D.C.,as well as through personal communication. We are grateful forall ideas, insights and assistancereceived in bringing this to print.We hope for continuing collaboration on improving our work in thefield on community-based development programs, and have beenimpressed by the thoughtfulnessand dedication all our colleaguesbring to this work.key issues 3Lessons learned 23resources 33COMMUNITY-BASED DEVELOPMENT, 2007
KEY ISSUESCommunity-Based Development(CBD) programming hasre-emerged as a preferredprogramming option after twodecades in which developmentand humanitarian assistancehas been increasingly targetedtowards conflict-affected areas.Programming ranges fromrehabilitating infrastructure togenerating short-term employmentand providing social services.CBD programs focus on localactors – specifically smallcommunities – with the hope ofaddressing the root sources ofconflict, supporting livelihoods,and building local capacity to solveproblems in an inclusive and nonviolent manner.Many donors and aid implementingpartners work at the local levelto empower communities.Recent programs have explicitlyfocused on the potential ofcommunity-based approaches tobuild participatory and inclusivedecision-making structures,to change social dynamics, tokick start economic activity,and to rebuild frayed socialties, thus mitigating chances offuture conflict. Adopting theseapproaches assumes that some ofthe roots of conflict are local.The U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment (USAID) has a history of supporting programsthat use a participatory approachas a tool for social reconciliationand integration of ex-combatantsand other conflict-affectedpopulations, mainly in postconflict settings. USAID hasimplemented these programsin all regions of the world, fromearlier programs in Nicaragua,El Salvador, and the Philippinesto more recent endeavors in theBalkans, Afghanistan, Burundi, theDemocratic Republic of the Congo(DRC), and Iraq.Local empowerment andownership represents a newtrend for many communities,where existing decision-makingstructures may not place the sameemphasis on consensus-buildingand inclusion that communitybased approaches do. There maybe significant resistance from localelites that benefit from existingarrangements. Conflict, especiallyprotracted violent conflict,creates complex relationships incommunities as alliances shift overtime. In affected communities,individuals who have injuredor been injured by others oftenhave to come together to accessprogram resources and resolvecommunity problems. CBDintends to build new cooperativeties. However, we recognize thatin many cases communities are
unable to overcome their hostilitiesto work together, especially inthe short term. The main riskis that, although communitybased approaches seek tochange patterns of behaviorthat contributed to conflict in thepast, the methods themselvesmay lead to conflict in thepresent as communities vie foraccess to resources and positionthemselves in the post-conflictsphere. CBD programs are nota panacea, but they do provide asound and sometimes successfulprogramming option that shouldbe explored in certain post-conflictsettings.Nonetheless, many donors toutthe benefits of CBD programs asvehicles for mitigating conflict,building grassroots democracy,promoting community solidarity,and providing economic activity.They are often so popular thatthey are burdened with a plethoraof goals that may dilute theirinitial purpose of rebuilding thecommunity.In the last several years, manydonors and implementers havebegun to evaluate their experiencewith this program model to identifybest practices, synergies, andlessons learned. Implementers arefinding that, while they may havesome conflict mitigation affects,community-based programscan also exacerbate conflict ifkey design and implementationelements and linkages to broaderprogram goals are overlooked.This paper seeks to capture theselessons for USAID and partnerstaff. It draws on the experience ofUSAID and implementing partners,as well as other donors using CBDprograms in post-conflict settings.More specifically, the experienceand lessons were collectedthrough numerous internal andexternal discussions including: An October 2004Workshop on “CommunityInfrastructure in ConflictAffected Societies,” whereclose to 50 USAID staffand partners shared keylessons learned and goodpractices; A January 2005 meeting atUSAID, where Democracyand Governance (DG)Officers and othersdiscussed communitybased infrastructure anddevelopment programs; USAID’s June 2005DG Officer Training,where 30 DG Officersparticipated in a sessionon building democracythrough community-baseddevelopment; and The 15th Meeting ofthe Conflict Preventionand Post-ConflictReconstruction Network(CPR 15) in October 2005where both bilateral andCOMMUNITY-BASED DEVELOPMENT, 2007
KEY ISSUESmultilateral donors sharedexperience and lessonslearned for communitybased developmentin conflict-affectedenvironments.WHAT IS COMMUNITY?The typical image of a communityin a CBD program is a village composed of people from similar backgrounds who have lived togethera long time. In a conflict-affectedsetting, the reality may be very different. A ‘community’ in a conflictaffected area may include membersof different warring groups, internallydisplaced persons (IDPs), refugees, ex-combatants, and victims ofviolence along with and among theoriginal inhabitants. In countries affected by prolonged violence, it maybe primarily composed of women oryoung people. In some programs,communities may be groups of individuals united by similar interests,such as businessmen, farmers orhealth workers. A CBD communitymay be an urban slum or a rural village. For the purposes of this guide,a community is a group of peoplesharing some common interests andneeds and who have to work together to solve problems.What IS communityBASED DEVELOPMENT?Community-based development(CBD) encompasses a wide rangeof programs, from reconstructionto reintegration, grassrootsgovernance and democratizationto conflict mitigation. The definingcharacteristic of a communitybased program is that it takesplace at the community-level andincludes community participationin decision-making and projectimplementation. Programs mightfocus on training ex-combatants,rebuilding water systems andhealth centers, paying forteachers or community healthworkers, supporting cash-for-workprograms, giving grants to localagricultural associations, improvinglocal fiscal governance processes,or providing small-scale credit orgrants to entrepreneurs. In short,community-based approacheshave been utilized in virtually allsectors of traditional developmentprogramming.While different donors andimplementers have adopteda number of different designsin a variety of sectors, mostcommunity-based programs employ a common basic approach.Facilitators train the community ina participatory, transparent processfor identifying community problemsand prioritizing them. The processfocuses on building the communityas a group, around commonproblems and common solutions.The community is usually givena grant, either in cash or in kind,to address the highest priorityproblems. The participatoryprocess is set up to includemarginalized groups like women,senior citizens, youth and excludedminorities, and to promotetransparency in the use of programfunds or resources. Programscan also include services ortraining, such as small-scale creditor leadership development, tofurther help the community realizeits goals. Afghanistan’s NationalSolidarity Program (NSP) is arecent example of a CBD programin action. Much has been writtenabout participatory processes;for a comprehensive overview,please refer to The World BankParticipation Sourcebook, inparticular, Appendix I: Methods andTools.Community-DrivenDevelopmentWhen the community determinesproject goals independently withoutparameters set by a donor orimplementer, a program is said tobe community-driven development(CDD). By increasing participationat all phases, community-drivenprograms maximize community
empowerment and ownership,and projects are more likely toenjoy broad support within thecommunity and to be appropriatefor its level of capacity. For thesereasons, the community-drivenmodel is generally consideredthe ideal form of communitybased programming. Althoughthis model appears to imply amore hands-off approach, it infact means that these programsrequire more training andfacilitation to help communitiesthat are often neglected, dividedand dysfunctional work through anew approach to decision-making.It also means that the processmoves more slowly and requirespatience on the part of donors andimplementing partners. It is not arushed process. In many parts ofthe world, and especially in triballybased societies, consensus of thekind needed to make CDD workrequires extensive dialog so that allmembers of a community agree tothe program.For practical and political reasons,however, donors often do placeparameters on the community.Donors may define the type ofbenefits to be provided (e.g.training will be for vocationalskills or grants are availableonly for rehabilitation of basicinfrastructure) or determine theprocess employed accordingto their needs, interests andcapacities or based on their ownassessment of partners’ needs,interests, and capacities. Whena purely community-driven designis not practical or allowable,donors and implementers shouldnevertheless devolve as muchresponsibility to the communityas possible. Again, patience isrequired to make this work.Why do we use CBDin conflict-affectedsettings?CBD programs are often thefirst development programs onthe ground in conflict-affectedareas. They can reinforce asense of community, generate animprovement in livelihoods, helpimprove the community’s abilityto realize its goals, (attempt to)build transparent governance, andempower marginalized groups.Depending on the context, a CBDprogram may emphasize oneobjective over another. However,to achieve the program’s conflictmitigating potential, a balancedapproach should be sought whereempowerment and participationare goals, with reintegration andstrengthened livelihoods theminimal results.The breakdown of systemsin conflict settings creates anopportunity to revisit negativesocial dynamics, such asdomination by elites or a particularethnic or religious group, and tofoster healthier dynamics. At thesame time, programs that promotechanges in power relationshipsor social dynamics will createThe ABCs of CBD CBD programs rebuild relationships based upon trustbetween and within communities that were traumatized. Effective CBD is built upontransparent and participatoryapproaches that ensure allstakeholders are included inthe process. CBD employment and infrastructure projects can be usedto increase community welfare and empowerment Seeing quick, tangible.results reinforces communitybuy-in and ownership of CBD. CBD empowers communities by engaging them ininclusive problem solving anddecision-making processes. Creating relationships between communities and localgovernments will enhanceand sustain CBD initiativesfrom relief efforts to longerterm development.COMMUNITY-BASED DEVELOPMENT, 2007
KEY ISSUEStensions and may lead to conflict.Asking for change while tryingto both stabilize and reintegratecommunities that have beendivided during a conflict is achallenge. Caution should be takenwhen designing and implementingprograms with the goal of bringingtogether estranged groups. Ifthe process does not go well, itcan also exacerbate tensionswithin communities and makeit very difficult to get groups towork together on future activities.Attitudinal and behavioral changesare long-term processes andare influenced by the outcomesof wider, more powerful politicaldevelopments. National andregional conflicts cannot beresolved through communitylevel programming alone. If widerpolitics change for the better andcommunity-level programs arelinked with regional and nationallevel peace processes andprograms to address drivers ofconflict, local attitudes are likely tofollow.ParticipationCommunity-based programdesigners emphasize that theprocess of community participationis the real product of the program– not the concrete projects, whichare simple outputs. Programscan build on existing participatorydecision-making processes orhelp communities develop newones; either way, an inclusiveprocess lays the foundation forthe successful realization of other program goals, but also carriesrisks. A successful outcome canbring a co
the Conflict Prevention and Post-Conflict Reconstruction Network (CPR 15) in October 2005 where both bilateral and . 5 KEY ISSUES multilateral donors shared experience and lessons learned for community-based development in conflict-affected environments. What is Community-
Functional vs Dysfunctional Conflict Functional Conflict- Conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance Dysfunctional Conflict- Conflict that hinders group performance Task Conflict- Conflicts over content and goals of the work Relationship conflict- Conflict based on interpersonal relationships Process Conflict .
for conflict analysis. 2.1 Core analytical elements of conflict analysis . Violent conflict is about politics, power, contestation between actors and the . about conflict, see the GSDRC Topic Guide on Conflict . 13. Table 1: Guiding questions for conflict analysis . at conflict causes in Kenya in 2000. Actors fight over issues [, and .
2.3.1 Functional Conflict 2.3.2 Dysfunctional Conflict 2.3.3 Task versus Relationship Conflict 2.4 CAUSES OF CONFLICT 2.5 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT 2.6 WORKPLACE DIVERSITY AND CONFLICT 2.6.1 Different Categories of Workplace Diversity 2.6.2 Cultural Diversity 2.6.3 Measuring Diversity
Understand the importance of conflict resolution in teams and the workplace. Explain strategies for resolving or managing interpersonal conflict. Describe the causes and effects of conflict. Describe different conflict management styles, identify the appropriate style for different situations, and identify a preferred method of conflict resolution.
CONFLICT PREVENTION AND RECONSTRUCTION TEAM (CPR) SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT, WORLD BANK CONFLICT ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK (CAF) Draft, April 11, 20051 Section I: Why Conflict Analysis Introduction Purpose Strengthening Country Resilience to Conflict Other Agency Conflict Analysis/Assessments
Whether a conflict will turn out to be Functional or Dysfunctional depends on twofactors: Type of conflict and the Level of conflict. Based on these there are three types of Conflicts: a)Task Conflict: This conflict arises because of the type of work which people are doing.For this kind of Conflict to be functional, it must be kept between low .
Tradition vs. Modernity 21 V. Escalation and Access to Conflict Resources 22 The Clan System as a Conflict Multiplier (and Positive Social Capital) 22 The Precarious Situation of Youth 23 Information and Misinformation 24 VI. Available Conflict Management Resources 25 Traditional Conflict Management Mechanisms and Social Capital 25 State Conflict Management Mechanisms 27 The Role of Religion .
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