Rod Machado's Private Pilot EHandbook - Aircraft
Rod Machado’s Private Pilot HandbookB18HOW CENTRIFUGAL FORCE CAUSES YOU AND THE AIRPLANE TO FEEL HEAVIER IN A TURNADuring a sharp turn on a level road, youfeel a newly generated force known as"centrifugal force." This force pushesyou out the door while gravity pulls you downward. If the door pops open, you'll move in thedirection of the resultant force.BCAirplanes in a bank feel thissame increase in G-force (loadfactor). Remember, if you feelheavier in a turn, then the airplanealso feels heavier. Thereforethe airplane must increaseI think someits lift to remain aloft in aof our vectors fellturn.Turning on a banked road causesthe resultant force to pull youstraight down in your seat. Thesharper the turn in the car, the greater theresultant force or G-force you feel in yourseat (i.e., the heavier you feel).out of the baggagecompartment!CentrifugalForceReFosulrc tane tLOAD FACTOR CHARTLOAD FACTOR G-Force9o8A 60 BankProduces aLoad Factor of"2" or "2Gs."76EFLI2force that makes you feel youmight fall out of the car while turning if your seat belt isn’t fastened(Figure 29).Because airplanes bank (like carson a banked road), centrifugal forceand gravity pull you down in yourseat. You and the airplane can expectto feel this apparent increase inweight during a turn. The wingsdon’t know what’s causing the airplane to feel heavier, and frankly, mydear, they don’t give a darn. Theyonly know that it’s getting heavier.The steeper the turn, the greaterthe centrifugal force and the moreyou and the airplane appear tobecome heavier. This force is oftencalled G-force. Perhaps it was sonamed because students often say,“Geeeeeeeeeeee” whenever they feelIn a 60 degree bank at a constant altitude, the airplane experiences 2Gs10 lb. weight produces a 20 lb. scale . Adeflection.543210102030 40 50 60 7080 90BANK ANGLE in DEGREESFig. 30Aircraft Technical Book ravityaccelerate to a safe margin abovestall speed—30% or more dependingon what your flight instructor recommends—then climb.)Here’s the question that wins afree pizza: Is it possible to make theairplane think it weighs more without adding any weight to it? May Ihave the envelope, please? Theanswer is yes. (Mushroom, no anchovies, thank you.) “Gee whiz,”you’re probably saying. No, not geewhiz, or Cheese Whiz, but simply G.Think back to the last time youwere on a rollercoaster. On thestraightaway all you felt was speed.Turns, however, forced you down inthe seat. You experienced an increasein your apparent weight when turning because of something known ascentrifugal force. This is the sameMGravityGravityReFosulrc tane tMEFLI2ReFosulrc tane tCentrifugalForceFig. 29their apparent weight increase. Theterm the pocket protector set (orengineers) use for G-force is load factor (we’ll use both terms synonymously).Figure 30 shows a load factor vs.bank chart. Using this chart we canassess the exact amount of G-forceyou’ll experience in any given bankwhile maintaining altitude. According to this chart, a 60 degree bankproduces 2Gs. This means you andthe airplane feel twice as heavy asyou actually are. If the airplaneweighed 2,300 pounds, its structureis required to support 4,600 poundsin a 60 degree bank at a constantaltitude.Here is the most important pointabout increasing the G-force (fingerin the ear again!). If the airplane feelstwice as heavy as it actually is, thenthe lift must double if the airplane isto maintain altitude. How can youincrease lift? Creating a larger angleof attack by applying elevator backpressure, going faster by increasingthe power, or a combination of bothwill increase the airplane’s liftproduction.During steep turns you typicallyapply back pressure on the elevatorcontrol while attempting to maintainyour altitude. This increases yourangle of attack and increases lift tocompensate for the increasing Gforce (Figure 31). Prior to entering aslight bank at an airspeed of 100(800) 780-4115
Chapter 2 - Aerodynamics: The Wing is the ThingANGLE OF BANK AND ANGLE OF ATTACK RELATIONSHIPSLIGHT BANKLARGER BANKSTEEPER BANK VERY STEEP BANKOOOO6 Angle of Attack 10 Angle of Attack 14 Angle of Attack 18 Angle of Attack84 Knots93 Knots90 Knots87 KnotsCBs1.8GGs1.11.4Gs1.4GsO1.1GsO10 O6Os2G1.8Gs2GsAs the angle of bank is increased in level flight, the angle of attack must increase to maintain the necessary lift. As the angle of attack increases so does the lift and the drag whichcauses the airspeed to decrease. Eventually the angle of attack required for level flightreaches its critical value (Airplane D). A further increase in angle of attack will cause the airplane to stall at a very high speed (also known as an accelerated stall).Fig. 31PERCENT INCREASE IN STALL SPEEDwords, when you feel an increase inG-force (load factor), the airplane’sstalling speed is also increasing.Normally you would increase yourpower in a steep turn to prevent theairspeed from getting too slow.Giving this particular airplane fullthrottle in a verysteep turn might keepThere are five good early warning cluesthe airspeed at 90to indicate the onset of a stall. Goodknots. This gives youpilots know and watch for all of them.a 6 knot buffer abovethe steep turn stallingspeedinthisexample.Of course, thisWhile this particular airplaneassumesthatyourengineis capablestalled at 60 knots in level flight, itofproducingthisextrapowerin thenow stalls at 84 knots in a very steepfirstplace.Thissimplyisn’tanbank. The moral of this story is thatoptioninoursmaller,horsepoweran increase in weight (apparent orreal) causes the speed at which the anemic airplanes, is it?airplane stalls to increase. In otherThe increase in stall speed withbank angle is as predictable as aSTALL SPEED ANDpolitician’s addiction to podiums.BANK ANGLE CHARTFigure 32 shows that a 60 degree180bank increases stall speed by 40%.oA 60 Bank160This is certainly nice information toIncreases140know, but are you expected to carry aStall SpeedCray supercomputer and punch inBy40%120percentages prior to any turn? Of100course not. What you need to have is80a high index of suspicion. If the seat60of your pants says you’re weighing in40at a level that qualifies you for the20main event on a heavyweight boxingcard, you should think (quickly)0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90about how the stall speed increasesBANK ANGLE in DEGREESin a turn. For those of you frightFig. 32ened by higher math (adds, takeAircraft Technical Book CompanyD18A14knots, this airplane’s angle of attackwas 4 degrees. With a slight bank,back pressure is required and theangle of attack increases to 6 degreesas shown by Airplane A. Theincreased angle of attack provides anincrease in lift but it also exposesmore of the wing’s underside to theairflow and increases drag. Now theairspeed drops to 93 knots.As the angle of bank steepens theangle of attack must be increased tomaintain altitude. The airspeed continues to decrease because of theincreased drag. Airplanes B, C and Ddepict this sequence. If you were paying attention back in the stall department, you can see where this flight isgoing. When the bank is very steep,the airplane reaches its critical angleof attack as shown by Airplane D.Having slowed to 84 knots, AirplaneD is now at its critical angle ofattack. Any further attempt toincrease the bank while holding altitude stalls the airplane.B19http://www.ACtechBooks.comaways, times and goes-intos) thereis an easier way to calculate this.Figure 33 is typical of the stallcharts found in most owners’ manuals. It provides you with the stallspeeds for specific angles-of-bankunder variable flap conditions (we’lldiscuss flaps in a bit).Avoiding stalls while in a steepbank with smaller, power-limited airplanes means you must be preparedto do two things. At the first sign of astall, you must unload the wings byreleasing back pressure on the elevator and simultaneously reducing theangle of bank. This decreases theload factor and reduces the stallspeed.For example, assume that you’re inthe traffic pattern and are making aturn onto final approach. Because ofpoor planning (it happens to everyoneonce in a while), you find yourselfSTALL SPEED CHARTPower OffStalling Speeds Knots IASAngle Of BankGross Weight2,550 459714245505940434857Fig. 33(800) 780-4115
Page I1Chapter NineAirspaceThe Wild Blue, Green and Red YonderIn this chapter we’re going to discuss how the airspace in the UnitedStates is constructed. We’ll concernourselves with the weather minimums and equipment requirementswhen flying in several varieties ofairspace. I’ll do my best to simplifythe subject and make myself perfectly clear. (When one of my early flightinstructors asked if he made himselfperfectly clear, I wanted to run myhand up and down behind him andsay, “Hey everyone, come here, look,Bob’s perfectly clear now!”)Airspace rules sound and lookworse than they are in practice. Thefact of the matter is that 99% of thetime 99% of the pilots will need toknow only a handful of basics. Someof what you’re about to read coverssituations that, quite honestly, arenot very prevalent. You need to beaware that certain rules exist,though, so you’ll know when it’s timeto refresh your memory.Bright student of aviation that youare, you might be asking yourselfuseful questions such as “Why?” Whyis it so complicated, why are there somany rules, why do I care?You care because the airspacestructure is there to assure the maximum safety for everyone. Knowingwhere you can fly and under whatconditions is essential to keepingyourself, your passengers, and lots ofAircraft Technical Book Companyother people healthy and happy. Youalso care because I guarantee youthat this stuff will show up on all theFAA aeronautical knowledge examsyou ever take, both computerized andoral.One more question. Why is the Vformation of ducks longer on one sidethan the other? Well, of course, oneside has more ducks. Despite theasymmetric display, our fine-feathered friends are pretty good at keeping themselves from bumping intoone another. They are their own airtraffic control system. This is all themore remarkable when you considerthat they have slightly less mentalcomputing power than an Etch-aSketch.Even if a few ducks were to collide,what’s the worst that could happen?Some ruffled feathers? A headache,resulting in a duck coming in on awing and a Bayer (I had to do that).Pilots, on the other hand, can’tafford a collision. Megatons of metalhurtling through the air at enormousspeeds means any encounters will beof a very unfortunate type. Let’s seehow that can be avoided.THE AIRSPACE CAN SOMETIMES BE A BIT CROWDEDOK gentlemen, both of you showed up at thesame place at the same time. Now let’s beprofessional; who wants to go first?Huh?Tower, this is the big jet. You can letour little buddy go first.N2132Bhttp://www.ACtechBooks.com(800) 780-4115
I2Rod Machado’s Private Pilot HandbookEye SeeOur modern airspace system hasevolved to protect you (the pilot)from bumping into other aircraft andvarious solid objects (mountains,trees, antennas. etc.). This is accomplished by having rules that determine how and where you can (andcan’t) fly under given conditions. Therules vary depending not only onweather conditions, but also on thetype of airspace in which you’re flying. In order to maximize safety, theairspace has been divided into different types of areas, which generallyreflect how busy that patch of airspace is and thus how demanding theflying is within it. Once upon a time,these had names like airport trafficarea, and terminal control area.They’ve been renamed with snappytitles like Class A, B, C, D and E airspace. These are simple but they’renot too descriptive. By whatevername, your job as a pilot is to knowat all times what kind of airspaceyou’re in and what its rules are.Any time you are flying, you willbe operating under one of two primary sets of rules: visual flight rules(VFR) or instrument flight rules(IFR). Generally speaking, VFR flightis fair-weather flying based on theconcept of being able to look out theI think youbetter comewith me!ASRS Reportwindow and see any obstacles orother aircraft at all times. IFR isflight when clouds, fog, rain, dustand other kinds of natural phenomena reduce visibility. IFR flight is, ofcourse, more demanding. It requiresadditional training for the pilot (aninstrument rating) and additionalequipment for the airplane. A VFRflight is a pretty hang-loose proposition. No flight plan is required(although it’s suggested), you can getfrom hither to yon via any route youwant, and you don’t need to talk toanybody except perhaps tower controllers at your departure or arrivalairport.IFR, on the other hand, is a tightly-controlled exercise. You file aflight plan prior to departure, inwhich you propose a very specificroute, including altitudes, based onUh oh. I guess that chart saidrestricted area and not recommendedarea like I thought. I’m in troubleagain, but not as much as thoseguys. They all seem to have one heckof a mixture problem.Aircraft Technical Book CompanyBAD JOKE!.it was only then that I realized our transponder was set to 7700 instead of 1200. Someoneset the emergency signal into the transponderas a practical joke prior to our flight. Neithermy student nor I had noticed the error. I regretthat the military was called on to do an intercept as escort. I guarantee that I will check mytransponder carefully preceding future flights.http://www.ACtechBooks.comelectronic highways in the sky. Youreceive a clearance, which may contain modifications to your proposedroute, and you follow it from takeoffto landing, communicating constantly with air traffic controllers on theground. With rare exceptions, you areunder constant radar surveillance.The exact flight visibility andrequired distances from clouds forVFR flight vary, depending on thetype of airspace in which you’re flying. In other words, flying in busyairspace requires greater flight visibility and distance from clouds thanflying in less-busy airspace. Theseminimum requirements, known asbasic VFR weather minimums, allowyou ample time to see and avoidother aircraft. See and avoid is thebasis of all VFR flight. When youcan’t see and avoid, you’re no longerflying VFR. Keep that in mind,please, because far too many needlessaccidents occur every year whenpilots qualified only for VFR flightcontinue on into bad (IFR) weatherand create business for a metal salvage dealer.You might be wondering, “Whatkeeps an IFR pilot from popping outof a cloud and bumping into a VFRpilot?” A VFR pilot, adhering to theminimum distance-from-clouds andflight visibility requirements, shouldhave adequate time to see and avoidan IFR aircraft emerging from acloud. That’s why, in the types of airspace used by IFR pilots, the basicVFR weather minimums make collisions highly unlikely. This assumes,of course, that pilots are looking outtheir windows and making an effortto see and avoid other aircraft.(800) 780-4115
Chapter 9 - Airspace: The Wild Blue, Green & Red YonderI3Not Part Of ATC SystemFig. 1FL 600Class AVFR ProhibitedClass A(Red)18,000' MSLClass E(Green)Anywhere in Class E or G at & above10,000' MSL but below 18,000' MSL1,200'AGL1000'5MilesVisibilityClass E(Green)1 mile1000'Class G(Purple)GClass10,000' MSLClass B1,200'AGLAnywhere in Class Ebelow 10,000' MSLVisibility 3 milesClear of Clouds3MilesVisibilityClass E(Green)2000'sG1,200'AGLTwo basic types of airspace exist inthe United States, controlled anduncontrolled. The major differencebetween the two can be distilleddown to one very important point:controlled airspace is likely to beused by more aircraft (especially aircraft on IFR flight plans) thanuncontrolled airspace. That’s whycontrolled airspace typically hasgreater cloud distance and flight visibility requirements than uncontrolled airspace.That makes sense, doesn’t it? Afterall, if more airplanes use controlledairspace, the risk of a collision ishigher. It’s a numbers game. Greaterflight visibility and cloud distanceminimums make it more likely thatpilots will see and avoid each other.Uncontrolled airspace, on theother hand, is less active. It’s normally found close to the surface, awayfrom busy airports, and in areasdevoid of airways (airways are theelectronic highways in the sky I mentioned a few paragraphs ago, onwhich IFR flights are conducted andLess than 10,000' MSL1000'2,000'500'1 Mile Vis-Day3 Miles Vis-NightClass CControlled and UncontrolledAirspaceAircraft Technical Book Company1000'500'ClasDay,1 Mile Vis &Clear of CloudsNight,Same as Class GAbove 1,200'AGL & Below10,000' MSL14,500' MSLMore than 1,200' AGLClassD700'AGL700'AGLalong which many VFR pilots alsonavigate). Since uncontrolled airspace is used less often, you can typically fly in this airspace with a lowerflight visibility and cloud distanceminimums.If you’ve ever watched fish in anaquarium, you’ll agree they swimaround completely confused. If theythink at all, it’s to contemplatewhether the Almighty is really anenormous nose that occasionallyappears overhead and always precedes the sudden and inexplicableappearance of fish food falling fromthe sky. It’s obvious that fish can’tunderstand anything because theydon’t have the big picture. I don’t wantyou to suffer the fish’s dilemma. Let’stake a look at airspace from the big picture perspective (just for the halibut).The Big PictureFigure 1 represents the big pictureoverview of the national airspace system. Don’t be alarmed. This will allmake a great deal of sense to yousoon (and we won’t need to do aVulcan mind meld to get you throughthis). As you can see, the airspace ismade up of several layers, shapes andhttp://www.ACtechBooks.comClassENight,1,200' Day - 1 Mile VisSame as Above AGL & Clear of Cloudssections. Each layer or section has aletter designation of either A, B, C,D, E, and G. Yes, I know, the F ismissing. That’s because there is noF-type airspace in the United States.Because the people in charge didn’twant any, that’s why.Class A, B, C, D and E is controlledairspace. Class G is uncontrolled airspace. Your job is to know the minimum flight visibility, cloud distance,aircraft equipment, and pilot qualifications for each class of airspace.With the use of an aeronauticalsectional chart and a little knowledge, it’s easy to identify the weatherminimums needed for any class ofairspace. Just because the designations for airspace run from A to G(less F) doesn’t mean we need tolearn about them in alphabeticalorder, and a fair argument can bemade that taking them out of orderactually makes more sense.Let’s try this. We’ll start withClass A (at the very top), then moveon to Class E, then Class G airspace.There’s a method to my madness (atleast this portion of it). Class A airspace overlies Class E airspace, which,in turn, overlies Class G airspace.(800) 780-4115
Chapter 12 - Understanding WeatherL37unstable, moist air and you have the possibility for cumulonimbus (nimbusmeans rain) clouds, scattered thunderstorms and rain showers in advance ofthe front, as shown in Figure 62.Fast-moving cold fronts can generatesquall lines 30 to 180 miles in advance ofand parallel to the front, as shown inFigure 63. Squall lines are lines of thunderstorms containing some of the mostturbulent weather known to pilots.Some meteorologists speculate that anisolated wave form may cause prefrontallifting in the warm, moist air precedingthe cold front. Think of this prefrontalwave (called a gravity wave) as the formappearing in a long garden hose that’sgiven a good shake. This ripple of energymoves along the hose. A wave of air,moving in advance of the cold front, cangenerate enough prefrontal lifting (lifting in advance of the actual front) toinstigate squall line thunderstormweather.SQUALL LINE THUNDERSTORMSSquall line thunderstormsmay form 30 to 180 milesahead of the cold frontSquall LineThunderstormsFig. 63Cold FrontPressurewaveLift createden ha rdGFor reasons not clearly knownby waveto meteorologists, squall linessometimes form in advance ofa rapidly moving cold front.One theory has it that the coldsefront and its pressure systemmight generate a wave form(also known as a gravity wave) that moves in advance of the actual front.This is similar to the wave generated when you shake a garden hose. The wavetravels along the hose. In a similar manner, pressure waves might travel ahead ofthe cold front, generating lift and creating thunderstorms in the unstable air.oCloud FamiliesCirrus CloudsClouds are divided into four families: High clouds, middleclouds, low clouds and clouds with extensive vertical development. The first three families of clouds have further classifications based on the way they are formed. They are classifiedas either cumulus, stratus, nimbus (meaning rain) and fractus(meaning fragmented).hery look and oftenCirrus clouds have a thin, white featds.banform in patches or narrowCirrostratus Cloudsren t,The se clou ds are tran spaandnceearaappinothsmo,whitishs.halooften produceAircraft Technical Book CompanyHigh clouds are the cirriform family: cirrus, cirrocumulusand cirrostratus. Their bases typically range from 16,500 to45,000 feet. The middle cloud family contains altostratus,altocumulus and nimbostratus.Their bases range from 6,500feet to 23,000 feet. The low cloud family contains stratus, stratocumulus and fair weather cumulus clouds. Their basesrange from near the surface to 6,500 feet. Clouds with extensive vertical development have bases ranging from 1,000 feetor less to above 10,000 feet.Altostratus CloudsThese clouds are grayish or bluishsheets or layers and are often thinenough to partially reveal the sun.http://www.ACtechBooks.comNimbostratus CloudsThe se clou ds are gra y, dar k andoften block out most of the sun. Theyare rain clouds.(800) 780-4115
Rod Machado’s Private Pilot HandbookL38SLOW MOVING COLD FRONTS AND STABLE AIRStratiform clouds associated withstable air in a slow moving coldfront.Fig. 64Warm Stable Air20,000'Stratiform CloudsCold AirWarm AirMiles 35030025020015010050010050150200Slow moving cold fronts are likely to generate more benign weather than their faster moving cousins. With a shallower slope, less intense lifting occurs. If stable air is being lifted,stratiform type clouds may occur over a large area.SLOW MOVING COLD FRONTS AND UNSTABLE AIRFig. 65Warm Unstable Air20,000'Cumuliform CloudsCold AirWarm AirMiles 35030025020015010005050100150200Slow moving cold fronts are likely to generate significant weather when the air being liftedis unstable. Cumulus clouds are likely along the frontal line.Slow-moving cold fronts, on theother hand, generally generate lesshazardous weather. Slower movingcold air forms a shallower slope, withless intense lifting of air (see Figure64). Precipitation and cloud formation occurs in a rather broad bandbehind the cold front’s surface position. Because the lifting is lessintense, stratiform clouds are morelikely to form if the air is relativelystable. Fog can also form in the rainyarea. Unstable air, on the other hand,forms cumulus clouds and thunderstorms. Either way, the weather isconfined to a rather narrow bandalong the front, as shown in Figure 65.Warm FrontsWarm fronts are typically associated with the small wave patterns moving along the polar front, as shown inFigure 66. Retreating cool air in theupper part of a small frontal wave isWARM FRONTS AND MOIST STABLE AIRCumuliform clouds associated withthe unstable air of a slow movingcold front.replaced by warmer, moister air fromthe south. Being heavier and denser,the retreating cool air is tugged bysurface friction as it moves. Warmfront orientation is more north-southor northwest-southeast, with thefrontal position moving in a northeasterly direction, as shown in Figure66.Tugging creates a long shallowslope over which warm air rises gradually as it replaces the cooler air.NWarm fronts consist of warmer air overridingand replacing cooler air in the retreating partof the wave cyclone. Warm front slopes arevery shallow, thereby producing less dramatic lifting as compared to a cold front. Additionally, warm fronts move slower (about15 MPH on the average). Warm frontalweather is, therefore, distributed over alarger area for a longer time.WESStra tifo rm clou ds ass ocia ted withwarm fronts and moist stable air.BAFig. 6620,000'CirrusCirrostratusWarm Moist Stable AirAltostratusNimbostratusCool AirFogAMilesFrontal Surface 100Aircraft Technical Book s.com Mark Rasmussen - Fotolia(800) 780-4115
Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook B18 HOW CENTRIFUGAL FORCE CAUSES YOU AND THE AIRPLANE TO FEEL HEAVIER IN A TURN MEFLI2 Centrifugal Force Resultant orce Gravity Resultant orce Centrifugal MEFLI2 Force Centrifugal Force Gravity During a sharp turn on a level road, you feel a newly generated force known as
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Welcome to Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Workbook. This book is intended to be used in conjunction with Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook. The questions are organized to follow the presentation of material, section for section, as found in the Handbook. Not only will this book prepare you for the Private Pilot Knowledge Exam,
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viii Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook About the Artist Since childhood, Sam’s love of aviation has led him down the road to his pre-sent career as a world renowned avia-tion artist. Sam has flown aircraft from J-3 Cubs to F-15, 16 and 18’s, which gives him a unique
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its original connecting rod before another connecting rod bearing cap is removed. 5. Remove the connecting rod bearing cap with the connecting rod bearing. 6. Inspect the connecting rod bearing for damage. If the connecting rod bearing is damaged, replace all main and connecting rod bearings. a. Acceptable bearing wear (1). b.
Rod Machado’s How to Fly an Airplane Handbook Published by The Aviation Speakers Bureau (800) 437-7080 Website: www.rodmachado.com eBook Version - 44.95 Rod Machado Flight Maneuvers And Stick and Rudder Skills A complete learn to fly handbook by one of aviation’s most knowledgeable and experienced flight instructors
Adventure tourism consumption refers to tourists experiences of actually consuming adventure activities while on holiday, and the benefits gained from these experiences. Adventure is often all-consuming and challenging and this means it can prompt diverse and conflicting emotions, ranging from feelings of fear and risk to deep satisfaction and elation (Swarbrooke, Beard, Leckie & Pomfret, 2003 .
