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033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page iMacmillan CXC Science SeriesBiologyLinda Atwaroo-Ali

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page iiMacmillan EducationBetween Towns Road, Oxford OX4 3PPA division of Macmillan Publishers LimitedCompanies and representatives throughout the worldwww.macmillan-caribbean.comISBN-13 978-0-333-80368-4ISBN-10 0-333-80368-XText Linda Atwaroo-Ali 2003Design and illustration Macmillan Publishers Limited 2003First published 2003All rights reserved; no part of this publication may bereproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permissionof the publishers.Designed by Jim Weaver DesignIllustrated by Raymond Turvey (Turvey Books Ltd)Cover design by Gary Fielder, AC DesignCover photographs:Front cover and title page: Corbis royalty free (leaf), Digital Vision (frog, dolphin),Photodisk (flower, DNA), Science Photo Library (heart)The authors and publishers would like to thank the following for permission toreproduce their material:Figure 24.5 Global Distribution of HIV/AIDS from UNAIDS/WHO Report (1996).(Courtesy: United Nations Office & Information Centre, London).Figure 4.3 Carbon Dioxide Concentrations from the Whitehouse Initiative on GlobalClimate Change. (Courtesy: The White House, Washington, DC).Figure 27.3 The Human Population Growth Curve, AD 1750–2000. (Courtesy: WorldResources Institute, Washington, DC).The authors and publishers would like to thank the followingfor permission to reproduce their photographs:Alamy p319(cr)Biophotos p41(br)Corbis pp5(bl, br), 7(mb), 68, 191(bl), 121(both), 123(bl), 237(t), 240(cl), 244 (tr), 256,277(r), 295(tc), 314(tr),DAS Photo pp309(both), 320Empics pp87(tr), 254(tr)Getty p305(bl)Holt Studios pp6(tl), 58, 216(cr), 216(cl), 217(tr, tc), 265Island Expedition p322Michael Bourne pp223(t), 215(cl)Michael Burr Photography p318(tr)Microscopix pp3(t), 4(br)Mirror Syndication International p69NASA p313(bl)NHPA pp5(bc), 153(cl), 176(bl, br), 180(cl), 254(tl), 271(bl), 295(bc, l), 297(t),315(cl, cb, r)Oxford Scientific Films pp6(ml, bl), 15(tr), 19(tl, br), 19, 37(bl), 180(cr), 197(tl),212(bc), 215(cl), 216(tr), 260(all), 271(br), 297(bc)Science Photo Library pp3(b), 4(tl), 5(tl, ml), 7(tl, tr, bl, br), 19(ml), 25(tl, bl), 76(bl),99(tl, tr), 109(r), 130(r) 133(r), 142(l, cl, cr, r), 154, 167(cr, cl), 169(bl), 171(cr), 167,202(tr), 212(br), 213(both photos in table), 216(br), 222(br, bl), 256(bl), 257(cl), 262,273(c), 277(tc, bl), 307(tl), 320(bl), 358(both)Mike Taylor 87(bl. br)Tropix pp7(br), 222(bl), 307(tl)Printed and bound in Malaysia2009 2008 2007 200611 10 9 8 7 6

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page iiiContentsSeries prefaceAbout this bookixxSection A: Living organisms in the environment1The variety of living organismsCharacteristics of lifeThe major groups of organismsClassification of organisms on the basis of visible characteristicsThe binomial systemSpeciesSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions12278101011122Feeding relationships between organismsProducers and consumersDecomposers and detritivoresHerbivores, carnivores and omnivoresFood chainsPredators and preyFood websSpecial relationshipsSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions14151516161717182020213Energy flow within a food chain or food webTrapping the Sun’s energyMovement of energy through a food chainPyramids of energyPyramid of numbersPyramids of biomassSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions2222242626272828294The cycling of nutrientsBiogeochemical cyclesThe carbon cycleThe human effect on the carbon cycleThe greenhouse effect and global warmingThe nitrogen cycleAcid rainSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions30303132333437383839iii

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page ivContentsSection B: Life processes5CellsPlant and animal cellsSpecialisation in multicellular organismsMovement of substances into and out of cellsSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions404142444949506PhotosynthesisPlants are the food supply for animalsPhotosynthesisProducts of photosynthesisLimiting factors in photosynthesisEtiolationSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions5252535657585858597Feeding and digestionDietOrganic nutrientsFood testsInorganic nutrientsFood additivesA balanced dietMalnutritionUtilisation of food in ManDigestionDigestion and absorption in the alimentary canalAssimilationFunctions of the liverSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style ionAerobic respirationAnaerobic respirationSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions8383858889899Gaseous exchangeImportance of gaseous exchange in ManMechanism of gaseous exchange in ManImportance and mechanism of gaseous exchange in plantsCharacteristics common to gaseous exchange surfacesThe effects of cigarette smokingSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions9191929496989999100Transport in animalsThe need for a transport systemThe circulatory system in ManBlood vesselsBlood10110110210410810iv

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page vContentsBlood groupsHypertensionSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions10911011111111311Transport in plantsThe importance of transport in plantsTransport systems of plantsMovement of water through a plantAdaptations in plants to conserve waterUptake and movement of mineral saltsTransport of manufactured foodFood storageSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style ion, osmoregulation and homeostasisExcretory products in animalsExcretory products in plantsThe human excretory systemOsmoregulationHomeostasisSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions12712812812913413513713813913MovementThe importance of movement in animalsMovement in plantsThe skeleton of ManSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions14114114214415015015114Sensitivity and coordinationStimulusThe sense organs of ManThe nervous systemReflex actionsThe brainAutonomic nervous systemSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions15215215415515815916016016016115The eye and the earStructure of the human eyeHow we seeSight defects and their correctionsStructure of the human earHow we hearThe ear drumBalanceSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions163163164168170170171172173173175v

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page viContents16Temperature control in animalsTemperature controlTemperature regulation in humansTemperature regulation in birdsSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions17617717818018118118217Growth and developmentThe growth of an organismGrowth and development in plantsGrowth and development in animalsSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions18318318418619219219218Reproduction in animalsReproductionReproduction in ManThe role of contraceptionSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions19619619720420620620819Reproduction in plantsLife cycle of a plantStructure of a SummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions209209211212214215217218219220Section C: Continuity and variationvi20MitosisChromosome numberThe cell cycleImportance for maintaining species chromosome numberMitosisMitosis and asexual reproductionSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions22222222322522522623023023221MeiosisThe importance of meiosisThe process of meiosisSignificance of meiosisSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions23323323423623723823822Heredity and geneticsVariationGenes239240240

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page viiContents23Genetic diagramsTest cross or back crossIncomplete dominanceCo-dominanceExamples of genetic effectsPedigree chartsSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions242243243244246248249249252Variation and evolutionGenetic variationImportance of genetic variationNatural selectionArtificial selectionMutationGenetic engineeringSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions253253255255260262263266266267Section D: Disease and Man24Disease and ManHealth and diseasePathogenic diseases and vectorsAIDS and other STDsThe role of blood in defending the body against diseaseImmuisation and the control of communicable diseasesDrugsSocial and economic implications of drug abuseSocial and economic implications of diseaseSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style on E: Environment and Man25SoilThe components of soilSoil erosionFertilisersSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions28528528929029129129226Ecological factors and their effects on distributionEcologyEcosystem, habitat, population, communityDistribution of speciesSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions29429429529630030030127Natural resources and their limitsGrowth of natural populationsGrowth of the human population303303305vii

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page viiiContentsResources and their limitsReducing resource consumptionSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style questions30630831031131228The effects of Man's activities on the environmentEndangered organismsWater shortagesPollutionDeforestationThe impact of industrialisationImpact of Man's activities on marine environmentsConservation and restoration of the environmentSummaryAnswers to ITQsExamination-style cal work in Biology326Indexviii360

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page ixSeries prefaceThis new series of textbooks for Caribbean Examinations Council [CXC] GeneralProficiency examinations has been developed and written by teachers withmany years’ experience of preparing students for CXC (C-SEC) examinations inCaribbean schools.A textbook is used in different ways at different times. Readers may be starting a topic from scratch, and need to be led through alogical explanation one step at a time. Students with a working knowledge of a topic may need to clarify a detail, orreinforce their understanding. Or, they may simply need to believe that theydo have a good grasp of the material being studied.The specially created format is the same for all of the books in the series. Diagrams and pictures are placed on the page in such a way that that theycan be consulted as the reader wishes but interrupt the text as little aspossible. Short-answer questions (called In-Text Questions even though they are notplaced in the main body of the page) allow the student to test his or her graspof the topic. A student who can answer an ITQ gains confidence; a studentwho cannot knows to go back over the topic and try again. The first use of any important technical term is highlighted in the margincolumn to make subsequent revision easier.Teachers throughout the region emphasised that inclusion of SBA materialwould be essential to these books. Each CXC (C-SEC) science syllabus specifies the areas in which an SBA exercise is expected. Accordingly, at least oneexercise is included for each area.The books will also provide a firm foundation for more advanced study appropriate to the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations [CAPE].Dr Mike Taylor,Series Editorix

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page xAbout this bookx This book isn’t just words on a page. Here are some important features. Eachwill help you, in its own way, if you take advantage of it. There are TWO COLUMNS.The bigger column has the text and some really large diagrams; you canread straight down it without interruption.The smaller column has other diagrams which the text mentions. Look atthem carefully as you need them. You may find that a few seconds lookingat a diagram is worth a few minutes reading. The first time that an important NEW WORD occurs, it is repeated in thesmaller column. If you want to check what a word means you can find it quickly. There are QUESTIONS called ITQs. These are ‘In-Text Questions’. When youhave read the nearby big-column paragraph, try to answer the question, inyour head or on paper, just as you wish. If you can, you’re on the road tounderstanding. If you can’t, just go back and read that bit again. Answers areat the end of each Chapter, so you can tell how good your answer was. Some possible SBA EXERCISES are included. They are printed in a separateChapter on paper with tinted edges They have outline instructions and questions to answer. Don’t copy them! Use them as models for designing yourown work. There is a detailed INDEX. Don’t be afraid to use it to find what you want. At the end of each Chapter there are some EXAMINATION-STYLEQUESTIONS. Your teacher will suggest how you can use them.

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page 11By the end ofthis chapteryou should beable to:The variety of living organismsúúúúunderstand why there exists a range of living organisms on Earth;list and define the characteristics of life;describe the major groups of organisms;understand how a classification system is used to group all livingorganisms;ú observe and classify living organisms according to visiblesimilarities and differences;ú understand the meaning of the term ‘species’.Concept maprange of living organismscharacteristicsof ntaeAnimaliaclassified accordingto common pecies – caninterbreedwith each otherbreedsvarietiesracesITQ1List three characteristics of the planet Earththat enables it to sustain life.The planet Earth, the third planet from the Sun, has all the conditions necessaryto support life as we know it. Our planet is positioned at such a distance from theSun that living organisms can survive in the range of temperatures on its surface(although it is a fairly wide range). The presence of water in all its forms (solid,liquid and gas), and the combination of gases which make up the atmosphere(including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide), are all conditions that are essential to life on Earth.A huge variety of living forms exist on the planet Earth. They can inhabit mostof the Earth’s surface, land, air and water. They show an enormous range in sizeand complexity – from the microscopic, which cannot be seen by the naked eyeand are as simple as one cell, to giant-like whales which must live in water sincethey are too heavy to support themselves and move on land.1

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page 21 · The variety of living organismsCharacteristics of lifecharacteristics of life ITQ2Animals and plants are able to carry outcertain processes which distinguish them fromnon-living things. Describe briefly how a plant(i) feeds, (ii) responds.Biology is the study of life and how living things stay alive. All living organisms,microscopic to gigantic, possess certain characteristics. These are the characteristics of life that distinguish living things from non-living things.There are seven of these characteristics.1 Growth – Living organisms increase in mass, size and numbers.2 Respiration – The energy released during respiration is needed to carry outall life processes.3 Irritability – Living organisms can respond to changes in their internal environment and the world around them. These responses usually increase theirchances of survival.4 Movement – Most living organisms can move. Plants show growth movements. Most animals can move from place to place to find food or a mate.5 Nutrition – All living organisms need food which is used as a source of energy.Plants make their food during photosynthesis. Animals get their food by eatingplants or other animals.6 Excretion – All living things make waste products during metabolism. Thesemust be removed from the body.7 Reproduction – This is the production of new organisms.Living organisms are able to carry out all these processes on Earth. Most organisms are adapted to live on land or in water, more or less close to sea level. Somesurvive in ‘extreme’ places such as: in hot sulphur springs where chemical conditions are toxic to most living things; in extreme cold, such as at the North and South Pole; in deep parts of the ocean where no light can reach, such as the MarianasTrench; in the upper atmosphere; in extremely hot deserts, such as the Gobi desert; inside other living organisms.Wherever they live, as long as they are able to carry out the processes of life livingorganisms survive and produce offspring. Most places on Earth can supportlife.The major groups of organismsvirus The kingdoms have scientific names that areslightly different from their common names: Prokaryota; Eukaryota; Protoctista; Fungi; Plantae; Animalia.All organisms used to be classified or placed in two kingdoms or main groups –animals and plants, depending on whether they get their food from other organisms or make their own food. However, living things are more diverse than thisand a classification system of five kingdoms is now used. These kingdoms are theProkaryotes, Protoctists, Fungi, Plants and Animals.Viruses do not fit into this classification. They are the smallest organisms,though it is difficult to think of them as living because they can only ‘live’ insideLiving organismsProkaryotes(chromosomesnot enclosedin a nucleus)Eukaryotes(chromosomes enclosedin a nucleus)ProtoctistsITQ3What are the five major groups of life-forms ororganisms?unicellularFigure larLiving organisms are placed in five major kingdoms (shown in

033380368X.Text.qxd1/8/0623:08Page 31 · The variety of living organismsViruses that attack humansHIV orhuman immunodeficiency virusInfluenza virusViruses that attack bacteria are called bacteriophages or simply phages.phage DNAPhage 2bacteriophageITQ4Bacteria are described as being microscopicand unicellular organisms. What do theseterms mean?Phage DNA is injected into the bacteriumwhere it makes copies of itself (20-1000)which are released to infect further bacteria.Figure 1.2Figure 1.3 Escherichia coli is a rodshaped bacterium which is part of thenormal gut ‘flora’ of humans andother vertebrates.surface of bacteriumThe structure of some viruses.another living cell. They also do not have a true cellular structure like other organisms.Billions of viruses ‘exist’ around us and it is only when they enter the cells ofan organism that they show some of the characteristics of life. There they canreproduce and grow in numbers.Viruses have a great impact on life on Earth, since they can live inside everytype of living organism, from bacteria to plants and animals. It is believed that theyhave changed the course of human history because of diseases like smallpox,measles and now AIDS.ProkaryotesFigure 1.4 Anabaena is a bacteriumwhere the cells stick together in longchains.cytoplasmcell wallThe prokaryotes are organisms that are commonly called bacteria. They occupymany environments such as soil, dust, water, air, in or on animals and plants.Some are found in hot springs where temperatures may be higher than 78 C.Some can survive freezing in ice. Some have been found in deep cracks in theocean floor, at very high pressures and temperatures of 360 C. They can be foundin every part of the living world.They are the most ancient group of organisms. They are also the smallestorganisms that have a cellular structure. Many exist as single cells, others arefound in groups (figure 1.4). Their cells have a much simpler structure than thoseof the eukaryotes (figure 1.5).Prokaryotes are vital to all other organisms since they cause decay of deadplant and animal material which releases nutrients back into the environment.They are essential to the nitrogen cycle. They are also important to humansbecause they cause disease (such as cholera and TB – chapter 24) and are used inbiotechnology (for example in insulin production – chapter 23).cell membranestrand of DNAFigure 1.5 Structure of a typicalbacterium, e.g. Escherichia coli. Thechromosomes are not enclosed in anucleus and there is little structure inthe cytoplasm.ProtoctistsMost protoctists

Macmillan CXC Science Series Biology Linda Atwaroo-Ali 033380368X.Text.qxd 1/8/06 23:08 Page i

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