Going Against The Grain: An FPDA Of The Epic Of Gilgamesh
- 105 Bi-Annual Research Journal “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre,University of Balochistan, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXIX NO. 2, 2018Going Against the grain: An FPDA of The Epic of GilgameshSamreen Zaheer 1 & Zainab Akram2AbstractThe aspects of one’s identity are positioned within a context prescribed byculture and they are according to cultural expectation. The present study aimsto add/explore power dynamics which are embedded in the discourses of Ishtarand Shamhat. This study is concerned how in The Epic of Gilgamesh, the twofemale characters: Ishtar and Shamhat are received and perceived by theirimmediate audience. The present study through a Feminist Post StructuredDiscourse Analysis (FPDA) (Baxter, 2003) lens analyzes characters of Ishtarand Shamhat, the focus of the study is to inspect the ways through thesecharacters negotiates their positions, identities and relationships in a societythat is dominated by patriarchal traditional discourses. It is concluded thatboth female characters in their respective discourses are victorious in theirpersuasion of action and manner of speaking.Key words: Discourse Analysis, Post Structuralism, Feminism, FPDA.IntroductionDiscourse performs a communicative purpose and this communicative goal isachieved through the each segment of discourse (Hovy, 1993). These segmentsare critically analyzed in the domain of critical discourse analysis, which showshow the relations of power and ideologies are built through discourse.Furthermore, the effects of power and ideologies on social identity, socialsystem and belief are demonstrated in human action (Fairclough, 1992). Thediscourse analysis locates the hegemony which is (re)produced, by socialdynamics. Discourse analysis indicates the withstanding of hegemony tocontinue domineering social relations. Therefore analysis itself is a form of“analytical resistance” which has a potential to make people knowledgeable1PhD Scholar, Air University Islamabad, Lecture, National University of ModernLanguages,Quetta Campus Samreen.zaheer@yahoo.com2Assist. Prof. SBKWU, Quetta
- 106 -about social standing and this knowledge develops resistance for change(Lazar, 2005). For Beauvoir “there is an I’ that does its gender, that becomesits gender on such a model culture and discourse undermine the subject, but donot constitute that subject” (Butler, 1990, p. 143). Butler expands the argumentand says that in any culture discourse is responsible for social change andpositing of subject.The epic of GilgameshThe epic of Gilgamesh dates from 3000 B.C. (Sandrars, 1972). After theunderstanding of cuneiform writing as early as 120 years the finest epic becameknown to the world of literature. Ancient text are available by means ofsecondary sources, either translation or transliteration (De Villier, 2005). Thetime Gilgamesh was written the genre of epic was not introduced. Since epicis poetry so I have taken the translated version of poetry by Andrew George(1999). This epic consists of 2900 lines and 11 clay tablets (Kovacs, 1989).The epic narrates the heroic quest of Gilgamesh the king of Uruk, his friendshipwith Enkidu and his final journey towards immortality.Status of women in Mesopotamian societyIn early Mesopotamian society women role was vital, apart from their domesticjob elite woman played her part in every sphere of life (Nemet-Nejat, 1998).Cuneiform documents, visual arts and archaeological contexts were the onlysource of information about the Mesopotamian women (Bahrani, 2001;Gansell, 2012; Oppenhein, 1967; Steele, 2007). These evidences furnish thepresence of elite woman in state affairs, politics, public rituals and priestessesof various ranks. Non elite woman is less known from these evidences ofinformation so, it can be inferred that non elite were not parallel to elite womanin their participation of social affairs. In the Dynasty of King Ur III royalwomen were lyricist of songs and author of lullabies for princes. Womenscribers were appointed for the recording of the transactions, but most of themwere slaves.Institutionalization of prostitution in Mesopotamian societyA German physician Iwan Bloch declares that societies where sexual activitiesare limited the prostitution develops among primitive people who aresexually licentious. However, institutionalization of prostitution resulted toregularization of sexual activity (Lerner, 1986). The circumstances underwhich prostitution institutionalized in a society can be trace out from ancientMesopotamian history. Ancient Babylonians gods and goddesses were notsymbolically represented in temple, they actually reside in temple. Thesepersonified gods were cared for and fed with day-to-day necessities. In some
- 107 -cases these necessities of life includes sexual services (Oppenheim, 1964).Various kind of priestesses were appointed to perform different roles.Daughters of king were selected as high priestesses (en or entu). They were incharge of ritual management, temple affairs like male high priest. In ancientSumer nin-dingir priestesses personating the goddess in sacred marriage. Theritual of sacred marriage was thought to bring richness of land and prosperityof people (Lerner, 1986). It resulted into separate group of prostitute. Peopleconsidered these sexual activities beneficial and sacred (Lerner, 1986).Naditum priestesses were next in rank. Most of them were daughters of highrank bureaucrats. Naditum of the god of Shamash lived in cloister house withinthe temple. They were not allowed to marry. Qadishtum were lower in ranktemple servants. During the temple services they were not allowed to marrybut after spending a certain amount of time in temple they may live outside thetemple and marry. Another possibility is that in the course of temple servicesthey may have prostituted (Lerner, 1986). Slavery was also practiced in NeoBabylonian society. Slave women perform the parallel function to wives fromchildren up bringing to house hold chores (Steele, 2007). These slave womenoccasionally works as prostitute when they were sold with the permission tosexual access by slave owner (Dandamaev, 1984). These are the few evidencesof sexual activities in ancient Mesopotamian society. Mesopotamian womenunderwent to different changes in their roles with successive civilization.Present study aims to trace the power dynamics that are apparent in Ishtar(goddess of love and war) and Harlot (Shamhat) character. It will examinespeeches of Shamhat and Ishtar along with the responses of immediateaudiences. First Ishtar obedience to Mesopotamian expectations andemployment of powerful discourse will be discussed. Further I will discussIshtar disobedience to Mesopotamian expectations will be demonstrated. Itwill be revealed that how she utilizes her power in her role of Ishtar. Todeconstruct the text I will use feminist post structuralist Discourse Analysis(Baxter, 2003) as a theoretical framework. As McLaren (2009) asserts FPDAallows researcher to recognize the voice of subaltern and and reflect upon it.This statement implies that “being reflexive is synonymous with beingscientific”. (Rogers et al., 2005, p. 381) because reflectivity is significantphenomenon in CDA (Bucholtz, 2001; Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999).Literature ReviewJudith Baxter (2003) in his book “Positioning Gender in Discourse: A feministMethodology” introduced the FPDA as method of discourse analysis. Thecentral idea of FPDA is the amalgam of Bakhtin (1981) formalism, Derrida(1987) poststructuralism and Foucault (1972) in relation to power, knowledgeand discourse. Post-structuralists see no essential connection between the word
- 108 -and its meaning, therefore meaning cannot be understood beyond event and itsdiscourse but only with the help of language (Weedon, 1997). Davies (1989)analyzed gender positioning in feminism stories from the perspective ofpreschool children and moving beyond the fixation of hierarchical oppositionon which gender is based. Thus the notion of deconstruction anddecentralization of hierarchical opposition is the core of post-structuralism.Therefore Weedon (1987) insisted on joining the work of Derrida to the workof Foucault, as deconstruction curtails the prevailing social powers doing somay reassured the patriarchal status by non-fixing of meaning.Complementing effects of Post-Structuralism on FeminismAccording to Foucault (1980) self is not fixed, social and cultural pattern oflanguage positioned self in society. In certain discourse self appears aspowerful in another discourse it may appear as powerless. Francis (2010)presented four reasons of embracing Foucauldian post-structuralism byfeminists. Firstly, Foucault gave the idea of “Enlightment discourse” associally constructed narrative. Secondly, post-structuralists contest feministsby describing power as socially constituted and inconstant phenomenon. It cannot only exist between man and woman but among women, Blacks, workingclass and gay. Thirdly, post-structuralist theory discards the binary oppositionsof male and female. Fourthly, idea of self as positioned and also as positionitself is an encouraging clue for feminist.Baxter (2002) drawn a study on speech of mixed-sex classroom. Theuse of feminist post-structuralist analysis allows them to show multiplypositioned discourse of girls at times powerful at other times powerless inmixed sex class and this multiplicity in positioning of girls reveals thecomplexity of discourse. FPDA produces the powerful insight of discourse ineducational practice and helps to transform the conventional practices ininstitutions.Kamada (2009) explored the hybrid identities of multi-ethnic girls inJapan. She being the seventh participant of her own study used FPDA anddiscursive psychology to analyze the discourse of girls in three yearsethnographic study. Kamada’s analysis demonstrated the nuanced mechanismused by girl to their discourse to giveaway to marginalized and privilegedaspects to their identity. Three years of study exhibited, how the discourse thatmarginalized them skillfully deconstructed by these multi ethnic girls andcelebrated their hybrid identity. Non-Japanese parents of these girls, who werebasically white foreign born English speaking provided them opportunities forgood jobs and better future.
- 109 -FPDA as an approach to history subject has been employed (Schoeman& Fardon 2010) to identify the marginalized women in school history text. Intheir exemplar Schoeman and Fardon identified significant incidences,activities associated with female biasness through invisibility, stereotyping,linguistic bias, and cosmetic bias were quantitatively presented. Through thelens of FPDA Andromache’s speeches in an epic Iliad were analyzed (Rowe,2016). By studying marginalized character of classical texts, her studydemonstrated that how strategically Andromache spoke out against socialnorms of that time through the available discourse. She applied certaindiscourse of Greek expectations such as pitiable wife, mourning widow whichallow her to convey her thoughts as virtuous and aristocratic woman.Few studies on the epic of Gilgamesh has been done (Abusch, 2001;Gresseth, 1975; De Villiers, 2005; Edmunds 2005), these studies articulate themythological aspects of the epic. Uçar-Özbirinci (2010) investigated the voiceof women in retelling of Gilgamesh as a drama by a Turkish writer Avci(1996). Avci gives voice to the Shamhat and snake who steal the plant ofimmortality. Her play brings a female prospective in patriarchal epic. Presentstudy argues that Shamhat is the strong character in the original version of theepic of Gilgamesh and this study presents the contrast of her character with theIshtar the goddess of love and war. Through the lens of feminist poststructuralist discourse analysis this paper has presented the different discourseof Ishtar and Shamhat and tried to highlight that marginal character may appeardull, but by doing so, understanding of the reader to the culture and societyancient times will be enhanced, and that is the aim of my study.Theoretical FrameworkFeminist post-structuralist discourse analysis (FPDA) to analyze Ishtar andShamhat speeches is chosen. This analysis is amalgam of traditional criticaldiscourse analysis with feminist perspectives. According to Baxter (2003)feminist approach analyze the power position in a discourse that is negotiatedaccording to the relationship and positioning of subject in society. That mayinvolve verbal and non- verbal discourse of speakers who establish theiridentity according to their surroundings.AnalysisThe mythical journey of a hero is quest of wholeness to restore balance in hislife. This awareness of the hero is often aided and progressed female charactersin an epic. Thus union with female character leads hero towards totality andmastery over life. Another prototypal and representative character is ofShamhat. She depicts through her character that a woman who is more adheredwith the traditional feminine can perform or exercise power. Shamhat is the
- 110 -temple-prostitute she knows the religious ways to civilized society. She is notonly connected to the sex to know the ways of man but she shows that she hasknowledgeable manners to the ways of civilization and humanity.In the beginning of the epic Gilgamesh is introduced as self-conceited andarrogant, to teach him a lesson gods has decided to make someone of his equalstrength so Enkidu was created. Enkidu is living in communion with natureand unaware of civilization.Fundamentally the role of Shamhat is introduced to bring transformation toEnkidu. She is the priestess of temple. Gilgamesh the king of Uruk called herto bring reformation in wild Enkidu, who was created to be the soul brother ofGilgamesh. Primitive man as Enkidu was considered savage by Mesopotamianliterature (Tigay,1982) his uncivilized state was not like Mesopotamiancivilization. However, the proponent to civilization were aware to the sideeffects of civilization (Abusch, 1986). The admirable and exciting city life ofEnkidu ends up in suffering, illness and death (De Villiers, 2005). Accordingto Damorosch (1987) the complex city life of Enkidu increases his knowledgeand this knowledge is a compensation to loss of innocence. In this mythShamhat personification is not as seductress but as a love and as a Delight tofind a glory and have a sacred purpose that is gracious, impulsive and full ofwisdom. She is represented as an icon of power. Her surrender to Enkidu is thesurrender to love and is to be filled up by the universe.She did for the man the work of a woman,his passion caressed and embraced her (189-190).Shamhat is send to jungle with trapper. She employs several discoursesof guide, mistress, soother and mentor. In the very beginning her nonverbaldiscourse gives her authority to hold the wild thoughts of Enkidu. At this pointof time she gets success to yield her body to Enkidu and make him to do whatshe wants. Her attempt to let Enkidu to seize her body is an act of giving powerto Enkidu. In this situation his physical power gets over her. She bears herselffor Enkidu and let him make love to her for six days and seven nights. In thisdiscourse of sex we find Shamhat is in possession of power. Through thisdiscourse she has yielded herself to Enkidu this is what she wants. Enkidupossesses her body but in fact it is Shamhat who gets hold of his mind. Thispurposeful shift of power is a tact which she utilizes to make Enkidu physicallyweak but knowledgeable. This woman possesses regenerative powers. She isshown as Anima figure. Sex is a vital part of Mesopotamian culture (Foster,1997).
- 111 -So she spoke to him and her word found favour,he knew by instinct, he should seek a friend (209-10)Shamhat physical beauty and prowess makes her inspirer. Enkidu’s discoveryof himself and the fleeing of his jungle wild creature from him compel him togo back to Shamhat. He finds comfort in her company. Wild animal and beastrun away from Enkidu, he came back to her and sat at her feet. Here she speaksto him and asks himYou are handsome, Enkidu, you are just like a god!Why with the beasts do you wander the wild?Come, I will take you to Uruk-the-Sheepfold,To the sacred temple, home of Anu and Ishtar,(201-204)Here she once again holds the powerful position in the persuasion discourse,she gets success in her motive to drive him and his thoughts away from thewild creature. She is strategic in her discourse and in her action as well. Shetakes Enkidu to the shepherd to introduce him with the civilized world. Theshepherds—fellas who have one foot in civilized society and one foot in thenatural world. In this way she finds help to change his cloths, gives food to himand ale to drink at this point Enkidu transformation is completed.Representation of Shamhat’s sexuality in a cultured manner signifying thecivilized culture of Uruk. Institutionalization of prostitutes were thedevelopment of civilization. Significant role of Shamhat furthered Gilgameshexpedition by giving him a companion of his equal. She uses her sexuality byhumanizing Enkidu and bringing him to the civilized life of Uruk. Enkiduexperience of sex with Shamhat crowded him with wisdom and totality whichhelped Gilgamesh to further his journey. Shamhat throughout in her discourseof teaching and guiding possesses an upper hand over Enkidu. She uses verbaland nonverbal discourses to establish her powerful position. Shamhat is anexample how woman does not necessarily need to be deviated to one’s role orspace. She depicts through her character that a woman who is more adhere tothe traditional feminity can exercise power.In tablet 3 of The Epic of Gilgamesh, the conversational narrative of Ishtarwith Gilgamesh is drawn upon several discourses such as the discourse of anindependent woman and the discourse of an aristocratic woman whounwaveringly voices her likeness for Gilgamesh. The first scene sets Ishtar in
- 112 -a powerful and domineering position where she herself offers a marriageproposal to Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh returns to Uruk as a victorious warrior, thedefeat of Humbaba in hands of Gilgamesh makes him an undefeatableconqueror. Ishtar admires, appreciates Gilgamesh and she yearns for a relationwith him.At the pulchritudinous and valiant Gilgamesh Lady Ishtar looked with longing:'Come, Gilgamesh, be you my bridegroom!Grant me your fruits, 0 grant me!Be you my husband and I your wife! (6-9)Here her free will makes her powerful over Gilgamesh. As asserts Gill(2003) there is a shift to presenting woman sexually autonomous, desirous anddynamic subject. They are no more in a position of sexual objectification rathersexual subjectification in the territory of sex, where woman is no longerexploited.Wealth and power has nurtured Mesopotamian culture, the relation ofphallus with wealth and power gives strength to structure of patriarchy, whereman are given more right than women. Like Greek civilization, the role ofwoman in Mesopotamian civilization was defined by patriarchal boundariesand it was strictly defined. The woman’s identity is subjected to patriarchalidentity, she was either the daughter of her father or wife of her husband.Women worked as dependent family member within the context of familiesand rarely acted as an individual. From childhood, women were brought up toassume familial and subjective roles of mother, wife and housekeeper. Theywere trained to cook, wash and weave. They were taught to make beer andbeverages, spinning and weaving for making clothes and if they were supposedto work outside they could only sell what they had manufactured at home. Mostof their jobs were related to household matters and household tasks, they couldwork as caretakers at inns and pubs, and they could perform as midwifes todeal with issues of childbirth and prevention of childbirth. After puberty, it wasthe family and parents who would decide marriage of the daughter, the parentsof bride and groom would arrange a marriage with all customs and rituals.(Khafajah, n.d.)Stol (1995) maintains that in Mesopotamians the future wife becomesa permanent part of grooms family and she is the passive object of all familytransaction .The groom family pays bride price and the girl acquires the statusof wife. Whereas Ishtar acts the other way round and she herself boldly praisesand selects a man for marriage. Despite the fact that Isthar is a woman, thoughfrom an elite class, acting from the position of powerfulness. She negotiates
- 113 -her independent identity and power position, here the sense of agency which isgiven to Ishtar makes her strong and empowered. The authority to propose aman in a patriarchal society and deemed herself to choose a man of her ownchoice shows the authoritative discourse. It is very interesting to note that shedoes not follow the ritual of bride price rather she herself offers to be groomher own plenitude. Instead of demanding, she entices and offers him wealthand power, she exercises her preeminent position. Despite this Ishtar is actingfrom the position of powerfulness. Here the sense of agency which is given toIshtar making her strong and empowered her. The authority to propose a manin a patriarchal society and deemed herself to choose a man of her own choiceshows the authoritative discourse. She offers him wealth and power, sheutilizes her dominant position:'Let me harness you a chariot of lapis lazuli and gold,its wheels shall be gold and its horns shall be amber.Driving lions in a team and mules of great size,enter our house amid the sweet scent of cedar!(10-13)From her conciliatory moves, allurements and solicitations, it can beconcluded that Ishtar’s character judiciously exercised language byincorporating bold discourses of an independent woman. Epic iscontextualized with the heroic expenditure of protagonist, bravery, heroism,strength and power are the salient traits that are depicted within the characterof that very protagonist.Her character manipulates the narrowly defined role in society. In away she challenges the set social narratives for women, she asserts her identitythrough a powerful discourse of self- attained, determined, individualistic andself-ruling lady. She goes beyond the permissible status of Mesopotamians fora woman and the role Ishtar adopts, finds limited acceptance. Moreover theresponse of Gilgamesh makes a shift of power discourse from Ishtar toGilgamesh. The derogatory rebuff of proposal from Gilgamesh asserts arejection to the independent identity of women. Gilgamesh like all other noblesof the tribes favours the discourse of a virtuous, upright and guiltless lady. Histurning down of Ishtar’s offer, onslaught on her past affairs and her charactershows the shift in power dynamics. In first stance Gilgamesh talks about herpast relationship with other male and their wretched ends failing to pleasegoddess Ishtar. Women’s vulnerability is deeply rooted in this very episode ofIshtar refutation by Gilgamesh. As he announces his love for Enkidu, theloneliness of woman in patriarchal alliance is vividly depicted. His charge offickleness to goddess of natural cycle is more indication to impermanence this
- 114 -impermanence is the center theme of epic and sole discomforting notionthroughout the epic.Gilgamesh asserts his completeness he feels inside his soul. The bond betweentwo male cannot be supplant by heterosexual bonding with Ishtar. The idea ofhomosexuality alludes the powerlessness of woman within patriarchy.Hardman, (1993) introduced another term homoaffection, which may notinclude the sexual conduct between same sex but bounding between them isstrong.In his immediate second demonstration his inclination towards Enkidu,Gilgamesh holds a standard and not honoring the petition he holds the powerdiscourse but at the same time he fails to play a gender role in heterosexualrelation with Ishtar instead he prefers to adhere with the familial role ofhomosexuality with Enkidu. Though we find the power position in theinteractional discourse that Gilgamesh maintains. Ishtar asks his father Anu togive her Bull of heaven here we find a conflict in the discourse of revenge anddiscourse of request. De Villiers (2005) suggests that the discourse betweenIshtar and Gilgamesh refers to the theme of immortality. Later on in epic,Gilgamesh realizes the finiteness of life. Ishtar proposal contains in itselfmarriage and funeral in both states Gilgamesh would have been entered intothe Netherworld, if he had accepted her proposal. Those nobles and princesthat will kiss his feet are inhabitant of new world. In this way Ishtar is deceivingGilgamesh (Abusch, 1986).In both discourses women are victorious in their persuasion of action andmanner of speaking. Gilgamesh who sent harlot to Enkidu shows hisdependence on women. Ishtar exercised her power over men that loved her.She dominated and hurt them and eventually led them to loss theirindependence. Though Gilgamesh rejected her proposal yet Ishtar in retaliationasked her father to send down Bull of heaven to defeat Gilgamesh and Enkidu.Eventually Gilgamesh lost his friend in consequences of slaying Bull ofheaven.ConclusionWhen I first encountered the epic of Gilgamesh, my understanding was limitedto the presentation of the heroic deeds and expeditions of the protagonist andhis quest of immortality. However, through my study, Shamhat the priestessand Ishtar the goddess of love and war shows their position in marginalizedsociety how they use their position and working through the opportunities theyhave been given. These strategies use through the discourses available to themat that time. Therefore it is worth discovering what purpose these marginalizecharacter serves and what lesson we can still learn today. Interpretation issituational, shaped and constrained by the historically relative criteria of a
- 115 -particular culture; there is no possibility of knowing the literary text as it is(Eagleton, 1983).Language can tell the deeper meaning, Ishtar and Shamhatspeeches provide the example of spaces created by the writer for the reader formore nuance reading. Through the lens of FPDA instances of contradictionbecame apparent. Thus we will finally be able to comprehend ancient viewsand from the broader perspective see ancient Mesopotamia which is separatedfrom our modern world in time and space. This is what I want to convey to myreaders.ReferencesAbusch, T. (2001). The development and meaning of the Epic of Gilgamesh:an interpretive essay. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 614622.Avci, Z. (1996). Gigamis. MitosBOYUT.Bahrani, Z. (2001). Women of Babylon: gender and representation inMesopotamia. Psychology Press.Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination: Four essays by mm Bakhtin(m. holquist, ed.; c. emerson & m. holquist, trans.).Baxter, J. (2002). A Juggling Act: A feminist post-structuralist analysis of girls'and boys' talk in the secondary classroom. Gender and Education,14(1), 5-19.Bucholtz, M. (2001). Reflexivity and critique in discourse analysis. Critique ofAnthropology,21(2), 165–183.Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: feminism and the sub version of identity(New York , Routledge).Chouliaraki, L., & Fairclough, N. (1999) Discourse in late modernity:Rethinking CriticalDiscourse Analysis. Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.Damrosch, D 1987. The Narrative Covenant. Transformations of Genre in lheGrowth of Biblical Narrative. Sam Francisco: Harper & Row.Dandamaev, M. (1984) Slavery in Babylonia from Nabopolassar to Alexanderthe Great (626–331 BC). Rev. edn. Translated by Victoria A. Powell;
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time Gilgamesh was written the genre of epic was not introduced. Since epic is poetry so I have taken the translated version of poetry by Andrew George (1999). This epic consists of 2900 lines and 11 clay tablets (Kovacs, 1989). The epic narrates the heroic quest of Gilgamesh the king of Uruk, his friendship with Enkidu and his final journey .
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