Monitoring And Assessment Based On Ecological Sites

2y ago
40 Views
2 Downloads
482.88 KB
5 Pages
Last View : 2m ago
Last Download : 2m ago
Upload by : Roy Essex
Transcription

Society for Range ManagementMonitoring and AssessmentBased on Ecological SitesBy Jason W. Karl and Jeffrey E. HerrickThe importance of rangeland monitoring andassessment (hereafter RMA) generally is accepted.This is evidenced by the emphasis on robustmonitoring programs at national (e.g., the NaturalResources Conservation Service Natural ResourcesInventory), regional (e.g., range-wide monitoring of sagegrouse habitat), and local (e.g., allotment-level monitoringwithin the Bureau of Land Management and US ForestService) levels despite tightening budgets. However, theimportance and benefits of RMA based on ecological sitepotential is less well understood.The modern concept of an ecological site describes thepotential vegetation communities that could occur on a site(states and phases) and the natural and human-causedprocesses that produce shifts from one phase to another andtransitions between states.1 This concept evolved from thatof the “range site,” which described a unique climax plantcommunity that would occur in an area in the absenceof disturbance (i.e., Clementsian succession). The rangeconcept was broadened to include multiple successionalpathways and to describe the ecological and managementprocesses that lead to changes both within and among plantcommunity states (i.e., different successional pathways)and different plant community phases (i.e., communitieswithin states).2An ecological site provides a standard reference for landmanagement, research, and monitoring. The ecological sitedescription informs managers as to what kinds of changescan be expected in response to management or disturbanceand provides a reference for the interpretation of RMAdata. It also informs managers about ecological potential interms of vegetation composition and vegetation-dependentuses (e.g., grazing, wildlife habitat). In other words, theecological site determines what is possible, the current statedetermines what is realistic, and the phase within astate conveys the current conditions and likelihood of futuretransitions.The concept of ecological sites and their current implementation via ecological site descriptions and associatedgeographic information system (GIS) spatial data layers60provides a scalable framework for RMA. In addition, thereare many practical uses of ecological sites for designingRMA programs and collecting and analyzing data fromthem. In this paper we describe an RMA framework basedon ecological sites and present examples for several currentand potential applications.A Framework for Monitoring and AssessmentA recently published framework for organizing, synthesizing, and applying ecological knowledge to land managementconsists of five elements3 (Fig. 1). Ecological sites are at thecore of this framework because they are based on long-termecological potential (i.e., climate, soils, and topographicsetting) that provides useful information over the time frameof land management. Ecological sites also are widely acceptedand used by resource management agencies. This framework, however, could also be applied using other landclassification systems based on ecological potential (e.g.,Terrestrial Ecological Units4).The state-and-transition model (STM) for each ecological site is integral to the framework because it aids in identifying management strategies in the near term, specificallyto 1) maintain systems in desired states or communityphases; 2) move systems from one state to other, more desirable states; and 3) identify knowledge gaps.5 STMs also areuseful for identifying processes that are likely to causevegetation changes and predicting how affected plant communities will change. From this information it is possibleto select ecosystem indicators that are sensitive to theexpected changes.In this framework, RMA systems measure change inland condition relative to its potential. Indicators of ecosystem function and status derived from RMA data, in conjunction with STMs, are used to interpret plant communitychanges in response to management and anticipate transitions between states. Rather than limiting the focus of RMAto a single objective (e.g., forage production, cover of perennial grasses), RMA within an ecological-site frameworkallows an area to be evaluated against its potential to providean array of ecological functions.Rangelands

Figure 1. Herrick et al.’s3 framework for organizing, synthesizing, andapplying knowledge of rangeland ecosystems based on ecologicalsites.Using Ecological Sites for Monitoring andAssessmentThere are several ways in which ecological sites can be usedfor RMA, including those following the framework inFigure 1 and others that take a different approach.Current Uses of Ecological Sites for Monitoring andAssessmentOne of the most common current uses of ecological sites forRMA is as a means of stratifying (or subdividing) a landscape for sampling. The primary role of stratification is toimprove the ability to detect change by minimizing variability within, and maximizing variability between, strata. InRMA, strata should be defined based on areas having 1) thepotential to produce similar types of vegetation and 2) similar responses to management and disturbance. Becauseecological sites are defined based on soils and climate, theyfulfill both of these criteria. Additionally, because soils andclimate are relatively constant over the time span of mostmonitoring programs, ecological sites are expected to be arelatively stable means of stratification (but see discussion onclimate change below).One example of the use of ecological sites for stratification in RMA is from the Bureau of Land Management’s(BLM) Winnemucca Field Office, Nevada. BLM staff inWinnemucca followed a three-step process to create RMAprograms for livestock grazing allotments and wild horseand burro herd management areas. First, they stratified eachlandscape using the Natural Resources Conservation Service(NRCS) Soil Survey Geography (SSURGO) soil map unitslinked to ecological sites. A challenge that WinnemuccaField Office staff faced in using ecological sites for stratification was that the SSURGO map units, in many instances,did not resolve individual ecological sites. By definition,December 2010Figure 2. Example of using ecological sites as a means of stratifyinga monitoring area for field-based sampling. Staff from the Bureau ofLand Management’s Winnemucca Field Office selected sample locationswithin a herd-management area by ecological site (shaded greenand yellow polygons). Note that density of sample locations varied byecological site based on expected use of the sites by wild horses.each soil type supports a single ecological site, but often twoor more soil types (i.e., soil map unit components) occurredin the same general region and were mapped together in asingle map unit as an association. In these cases, a single soilmap unit might contain multiple ecological sites because theexact spatial locations of the component soils within theunit occur at a scale finer than that of the soil mapping. Forthe second step, they randomly selected point locationswithin each soil map unit, generating a greater number oflocations than they intended to measure. Finally, eachsample location was evaluated using aerial photography, andwhen necessary, a site visit, to determine its ecological site.This process continued until enough points within eachecological site were identified for sampling (Fig. 2).Ecological sites also are used to select and interpret indicators for RMA. The states and phases in an STM aredescribed in terms of their vegetation composition andsometimes dynamic soil and soil-surface properties. STM61

transition narratives (i.e., management and disturbanceevents and processes) explain the mechanisms by whichtransitions to alternative states occur.5,6 This informationcan be used to identify indicators that link observable vegetation patterns to the processes and functions that are ofinterest to management.For example, the STM for the Sandy Loam 12–16-inchBasin big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. tridentata)/bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegeneria spicata) ecologicalsite in Idahoi shows that improper grazing management(IGM in the model diagram) can cause a change from areference community of basin big sagebrush and cool-seasonperennial bunchgrasses (phase A) to a depleted shrubcommunity (phase B) within the reference state (State 1) bydecreasing the cover of cool-season perennial grasses, leading to an increase in perennial grasses such as squirreltail(Elymus elymoides) and annual grasses including cheatgrass(Bromus tectorum). If grazing intensity is too high and fireoccurs, a threshold can be crossed and the state can changeto an annual grass state (State 2). The ways in which grazing affects the composition of plants in this ecological sitesuggest that the cover of perennial and annual grasses wouldbe a useful indicator of impact from grazing.Ecological site descriptions also aid in the interpretationof RMA data. The qualitative rangeland assessment method,“Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health” (IIRH)7 isbuilt upon the idea that the values for indicators of soilstability, hydrologic function, and biotic integrity vary byecological site. The IIRH indicators are judged based on areference sheet that describes each indicator as it wouldoccur under reference conditions (i.e., the reference phase inBestelmeyer et al., this issue). The IIRH reference sheets,developed for each ecological site by experts having extensive knowledge of that site, are the benchmark for evaluating an ecological site using IIRH and necessary to interpretthe 17 IIRH indicators. For example, in New Mexico, theIIRH reference sheet describes a shallow upland siteii inreference condition as being expected to have between 25%and 35% cover of bare ground. An adjacent loamy uplandsiteiii in reference condition would be expected to have only15% to 25% bare ground cover. Thus, in order to assess thecondition of an area using the IIRH method, it is firstnecessary to identify its ecological site. Increasingly, ecological site descriptions include reference sheets that describethe characteristics of the site relative to the 17 indicators ofrangeland health.7iEcological site ID: R010AY022ID. Available at: px?approved no&id R010AY022ID.Accessed 6 October 2010.iiEcological site ID: R070AY003NM. Available at: px?approved yes&id R070AY003NM. Accessed 6 October 2010.iiiEcological site ID: R070AY001NM. Available at: px?approved yes&id R070AY001NM. Accessed 6 October 2010.62As an example, Miller8 used the IIRH protocol to assessthe status of three ecosystem attributes (soil stability, hydrologic function, and biotic integrity) across the 760,000-haGrand Staircase–Escalante National Monument. Therewere 50 ecological sites described for the monument; froma sample of 507 locations, 26 ecological sites had more thanfive sample locations. The rating of the indicators against areference sheet for each ecological site allowed Miller tocombine the results across different ecological sites to drawconclusions about land status across the monument.Emerging Uses of Ecological SitesThe current uses of ecological sites have greatly improvedthe ability to collect and interpret data for RMA. However,there are many more ways in which ecological sites can beused to improve both the efficiency and accuracy of RMA.These include using ecological site descriptions and theirSTMs to 1) help identify where monitoring should occur,2) determine sampling intensity, 3) develop standard andconsistent indicators of ecosystem attributes for RMA, 4)provide a context to support the use of remote-sensing techniques, and 5) develop a dynamic framework for managingrangelands in the context of climate change.One of the biggest challenges in designing monitoringprograms is deciding where to sample. This challenge occurson two scales—selection of what portions of a landscape willbe monitored and selection of specific sample locationswithin these larger areas. Ecological sites already are beingused as an aid in selecting specific sample locations via stratification as illustrated above, but they also can be used todefine which broader areas will be monitored. STMs can beused to determine the areas that are more or less likely toexperience change in response to specific management activitiesor disturbances. Areas that are likely to experience changethat could push them toward a threshold (i.e., state change)should be monitored at the highest intensity. Stable states(i.e., areas that already have crossed a threshold), or statesthat will not be affected by management, can be monitoredat lower intensities (i.e., fewer sample locations).This approach is being applied by BLM’s Las CrucesDistrict Office (LCDO) in southwest New Mexico forselecting locations for restoration of shrub-invaded grasslands and designing subsequent monitoring programs. Usinga map of states and ecological sites (Fig. 3), BLM staffevaluated potential restoration locations based on the areacovered by each state or community phase in each management area.9 Preference was given to areas that had phasesexperiencing shrub encroachment and that were hypothesized to experience increases in perennial grass cover (i.e.,reference and shrub-dominated states). Little effort was puttoward treating or monitoring areas in the shrubland statebecause they were not expected to experience significantincreases in perennial grass cover.The example above illustrates how ecological sites can beused to assist with the allocation of sampling effort. IntensityRangelands

Figure 3. Example of a map of ecological sites and states within sitesdeveloped for the Bureau of Land Management’s Las Cruces DistrictOffice in New Mexico. The geographic distribution of the states wasused to select locations for shrub removal and monitoring of shrubencroachment based on the potential for the site to be restored toperennial grassland.of sampling can vary among strata and should be determined by 1) magnitude of change to be detected, 2) variability within the stratum, and 3) the likelihood that thearea will experience change. Typically, the desired minimumdetectable change is set by management and monitoringobjectives and logistical constraints, but also can be informedby the ecological site reference sheet and STM. A smallerminimum detectable change might be selected for stratathat are expected to be affected by management activities.For example, BLM’s LCDO might be interested in detecting a 50% change in perennial grass cover within referencestates considered at risk of crossing a threshold. Alternatively,a high minimum detectable change might be acceptable forstable sites (e.g., 100% change in perennial grass cover inthe shrubland state might be acceptable because it is unlikelyto experience change and if it does, managers would be onlyinterested in large degrees of change). Site variability shouldbe estimated using pilot data (stratified by ecological site) orexisting data from a similar ecological site. For the majorityof ecological sites and states, it currently is possible only tomake qualitative judgments of potential sampling intensityDecember 2010from existing ecological site descriptions (i.e., determinewhether sampling intensity should be higher or lower in oneecological site or state compared to another). However,because ecological site descriptions improve and quantitativedata linked to them accumulate, stored ecological-siteinformation might be used to assist in allocation of samplingeffort.Ecological sites also are being used in the developmentand implementation of standardized monitoring protocols.As the diversity of uses of public lands and the threats toland condition (e.g., fire, invasive species, erosion) haveincreased, it has become apparent that monitoring for individual species (e.g., sage grouse [Centrocercus urophasianus]),uses (e.g., grazing), and threats alone is not effective anddoes not provide the flexibility needed to respond to newmonitoring objectives as they develop. Combining differentmonitoring efforts to address multiple needs is desirable, butthe lack of standardized methods and sample design hasprevented this to date. Because they are based on site potential and have explicit links to management and disturbanceactivities, ecological sites make an ideal foundation forbuilding a nationwide sampling framework that can supportlow-intensity national-level sampling (e.g., NRCS NaturalResources Inventory) as well as integrate more intensive,fine-scale sampling to meet local management needs. TheBLM’s Assessment, Inventory, and Monitoring Strategyproject is currently developing such a system based onecological sites.10Remote sensing is playing an increasingly important rolein RMA. Its use will continue to grow as more sophisticatedtechniques are employed and reliable products are developedacross a wide range of spatial scales. In rangeland systems,soil-surface reflectance can have a large influence on imagesensor measurements and make it difficult to discriminatebetween vegetation types or amounts. Similar to their utilityfor stratification of field-based surveys, ecological sites canimprove remote-sensing classification by identifying andisolating areas where soil reflectance is expected to be similar. More generally, ecological site descriptions can be ahelpful starting point for defining land cover classes that arerelevant to management objectives and that can be reliablymapped. Similar to field-based indicators, remotely-sensedindicators of rangeland ecosystems are of limited utilityto management objectives. Ecological sites provide thecontext necessary to translate the results of remotely-sensedproducts into actionable management information.Finally, ecological sites can be used to create a dynamicframework for managing land use in the context of climatechange. Ecological site descriptions and their STMs conveythe possible outcomes of different land uses based largely oninformation from the recent past. As temperature and precipitation regimes change, plant communities and land useeffects on them will change. This will necessitate a periodicrefreshing of ecological site descriptions and continuingresearch into ecological site dynamics. Nonetheless, ecological63

site databases provide a mechanism for documenting thestructural and functional changes to rangeland ecosystemsinto the future, and allow for managers to evaluate thepotential impacts of existing and new land uses.The Landscape Toolbox project (www.landscapetoolbox.org) was developed to support these emerging uses ofecological sites and to integrate different tools and techniquesfor RMA. The Landscape Toolbox builds on the frameworkin Figure 1 and recognizes the importance of scale in understanding and managing natural systems. The appropriatescale for RMA will be determined by the managementobjective and the system being managed, and the bestcombination of indicators, tools, and techniques for RMA(including uses of ecological sites and STMs) will vary withscale. The Landscape Toolbox provides techniques forselecting scales for RMA and tools and information sources(e.g., the Rangeland Assessment and Monitoring MethodsGuide, www.rangelandmethods.org) on many differentRMA methods and how they can be used together.ConclusionEcological site concepts and existing ecological site dataproducts (e.g., ecological site descriptions, STMs, spatialdata layers) are useful for RMA on many levels, fromorganizing our understanding of natural systems to aiding insample design and interpreting data. We discussed only asubset of the possible uses of ecological site concepts inRMA. For applications such as sample stratification orrangeland health reference sheets, ecological sites already arewidely used. However, the potential f

A recently published framework for organizing, synthesiz-ing, and applying ecological knowledge to land management consists of fi ve elements3 (Fig. 1). Ecological sites are at the core of this framework because they are based on long-term ecological potential (i.e., climate, soils, and topographic

Related Documents:

telemetry 1.24 Service P threshold_migrator 2.11 Monitoring P tomcat 1.30 Monitoring P trellis 20.30 Service P udm_manager 20.30 Service P url_response 4.52 Monitoring P usage_metering 9.28 Monitoring vCloud 2.04 Monitoring P vmax 1.44 Monitoring P vmware 7.15 Monitoring P vnxe_monitor 1.03 Monitoring vplex 1.01 Monitoring P wasp 20.30 UMP P .

What is Media Monitoring and How Do You Use it Monitoring: a history of tracking media What is monitoring? Getting started with monitoring The Benefits and Uses of Monitoring Using media monitoring to combat information overload Tools to maximize monitoring and measurement efforts Using media monitoring to develop media lists

assessment. In addition, several other educational assessment terms are defined: diagnostic assessment, curriculum-embedded assessment, universal screening assessment, and progress-monitoring assessment. I. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT . The FAST SCASS definition of formative assessment developed in 2006 is “Formative assessment is a process used

2.2 Monitoring surveys 7 3 Monitoring habitat 8 3.1 Food supply - direct measurement 9 3.2 Food supply - indirect measurements 9 4 Monitoring protocol summary 10 4.1 Monitoring otters 10 4.2 Monitoring habitat 11 SECTION 2:REVIEW OF ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES AND PROTOCOL RATIONALE 13 1 Introduction 13 1.1 Monitoring otter populations 13

SIRIUS monitoring relays: Perfect protection of machines and systems Monitoring relays 3UG451 / 461 / 463 monitoring relays for line and single-phase voltage monitoring – as 3UG481 / 483 also for IO-Link 10 6* 3RR21/22 monitoring relays for direct mounting on contactors for multi-phase current monitoring – as 3RR24 also for IO-Link 12 7 .

fessional monitoring software can be used to monitor company applica - tions so that factors like availability, bandwidth and general usage of the IT infrastructure are displayed transparently at all times. Separate Monitoring for Applications and Services Many monitoring solution providers offer bulk monitoring of application servers and ser .

Unit 1 Monitoring cubicle Unit 2 Unit n Plant Bus TCP/IP Air gap monitoring Relay out Vibration monitoring Relay out Control system Profibus DP Condition monitoring system OnCare.Health Hydro OnCare.Health Hydro is an online monitoring, analysis and diagnosis system developed by Voith Digital Ventures, combining the know-how and

Bently Nevada Monitoring Systems 7200 Series (Dial Monitoring) 3500 Series (Computer Monitoring) we have two types of vibration monitoring system the Bently nevada 7200 series vibration monitoring system. It is a dial monitoring analog system installed at our plant on Air Compressor partially and on Most of the TPs etc.