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Ergonomics: The Study of WorkU.S. Department of LaborOccupational Safety and Health AdministrationOSHA 31252000 (Revised)

ContentsWhat is ergonomics? --------------------- 1Who needs to read this booklet? ------- 1Why is ergonomics important? --------- 1What are MSDs? -------------------------- 2What causes work-related MSDs? ------ 2Can non-work-related factors cause MSDs? -------------------------------------------- 3What types of work are most likely to pose ergonomic hazards? -------------------- 3How do I know if I have an MSD? ----- 3What parts of the body are most affected by MSDs? ---------------------------------- 3How much does it cost to prevent MSDs? ---------------------------------------------- 4How can ergonomics help my workplace? ---------------------------------------------- 5What can I do to detect and prevent ergonomic hazards at my workplace? ------- 5What is job hazard analysis? ------------ 7How do I control ergonomic risk factors? ----------------------------------------------- 7What comprises MSD management? -- 8What type of training and education program do I need? ---------------------------- 9How do I begin an ergonomics program at my workplace? --------------------------- 9How can I find out more about ergonomics? ----------------------------------------- 10Glossary ---------------------------------- 11Ergonomics: The Study of Workiii

What is ergonomics?These factors—especially if coupled withErgonomics can be defined simply as the poor machine design, tool, and workplacestudy of work. More specifically, ergonomics design or the use of improper tools—createis the science of designing the job to fit the physical stress on workers’ bodies, which canworker, rather than physically forcing the lead to injury.A dramatic increase in MSDs began in theworker’s body to fit the job.Adapting tasks, work stations, tools, and 1970s when these disorders increasingly apequipment to fit the worker can help reduce peared on companies’ injury and illness logs.physical stress on a worker’s body and elimi- OSHA cited companies for hazardous worknate many potentially serious, disabling work- place conditions that caused problems suchas tendinitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, andrelated musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs).Ergonomics draws on a number of back injuries.The Bureau of Labor Statistics, an agencyscientific disciplines, including physiology,biomechanics, psychology, anthropometry, of the U.S. Department of Labor, recognizesMSDs as a serious workplace health hazard.industrial hygiene, and kinesiology.These injuries now account for more than onethird of all lost—workday case.1Who needs to read this booklet?You need to know about ergonomics if youare an employer or an employee in the manuUse tools that are right forfacturing, construction, maritime, and agriculthe job.tural industries and you or your employees’work activities and job conditions include: Repeating the same motion throughout yourworkday,Get a Grip! Working in awkward or stationary positions, Lifting heavy or awkward items,Problem: Pharmaceutical technicians Using excessive force to perform tasks, andhand-tighten dozens of vaccine jug lids Being exposed to excessive vibration ordaily. If not adequately tightened, the Extreme temperatures.jugs could leak and spoil products worththousands of dollars. Testing revealed,Why is ergonomics important?however, that most operators are poorIndustries increasingly require higher projudges of cap torque—resulting in signifiduction rates and advances in technology tocant unwarranted hand and wrist stress.remain competitive and stay in business. As aOperators also were marginally capableresult, jobs today can involve:of using the proper torque required to Frequent lifting, carrying, and pushing ortighten caps adequately.pulling loads without help from other workSolution: The company purchased a dialers or devices;torque wrench, made a special cap torque Increasing specialization that requires theattachment, and trained the techniciansworker to perform only one function orto use the new equipment.movement for a long period of time or dayafter day;Cost: About 8 per worker. Working more than 8 hours a day; Working at a quicker pace of work, such asU.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, News Release,faster assembly line speeds; and“Lost-worktime Injuries and Illnesses; Characteristics and Resulting Time Away from Work, 1998,” April 20, 2000. Online at Having tighter grips when using tools.www.bls.gov.1

If work tasks and equipment do not include ergonomic principles in their design,workers may have exposure to undue physical stress, strain, and overexertion, includingvibration, awkward postures, forceful exertions, repetitive motion, and heavy lifting.Recognizing ergonomic risk factors in theworkplace is an essential first step in correcting hazards and improving worker protection.Ergonomists, industrial engineers, occupational safety and health professionals, andother trained individuals believe that reducing physical stress in the workplace couldeliminate up to half of the serious injuries eachyear. Employers can learn to anticipate whatmight go wrong and alter tools and the workenvironment to make tasks safer for theirworkers.exposure to multiple risk factors that can causeor exacerbate the disorders, not from a singleevent or trauma such as a fall, collision, or entanglement.MSDs can cause a number of conditions,including pain, numbness, tingling, stiff joints,difficulty moving, muscle loss, and sometimesparalysis. Frequently, workers must lose timefrom work to recover; some never regain fullhealth.These disorders include carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis, sciatica, herniated discs,and low back pain. MSDs do not include injuries resulting from slips, trips, falls, or similar accidents.What causes work-related MSDs?Work-related MSDs occur when the physical capabilities of the worker do not match thephysical requirements of the job. ProlongedWhat are MSDs?MSDs, or musculoskeletal disorders, are exposure to ergonomic risk factors can causeinjuries and disorders of the soft tissues damage a worker’s body and lead to MSDs.(muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, and cartilage) and nervous system. They can affect Conditions that are likely to cause MSD probnearly all tissues, including the nerves and lems include the following:tendon sheaths, and most frequently involve Exerting excessive force;the arms and back. Excessive repetition of movements that canOccupational safety and health professionirritate tendons and increase pressure onals have called these disorders a variety ofnerves;names, including cumulative trauma disor- Awkward postures, or unsupported posiders, repeated trauma, repetitive stress injutions that stretch physical limits, can comries, and occupational overexertion syndrome.press nerves and irritate tendons;These painful and often disabling injuries Static postures, or positions that a workergenerally develop gradually over weeks,must hold for long periods of time, can remonths, and years. MSDs usually result fromstrict blood flow and damage muscles; Motion, such as increased speed or acceleration when bending and twisting, can increase the amount of force exerted on theParts of the Body Affected by MSDsbody; Arms Back Compression, from grasping sharp edgeslike tool handles, can concentrate force on Hands Wristssmall areas of the body, reduce blood flow Fingers Legsand nerve transmission, and damage tendons and tendon sheaths; Neck Shoulders Inadequate recovery time due to overtime,lack of breaks, and failure to vary taskscan leave insufficient time for tissue repair; Ergonomics: The Study of Work

Excessive vibration, usually from vibratingtools, can decrease blood flow, damageMSD Risk Factorsnerves, and contribute to muscle fatigue. Force Whole-body vibration, from driving trucksor operating subways, can affect skeletal Repetitionmuscles and cause low-back pain; and Awkward postures Working in cold temperatures can adverselyaffect a worker’s coordination and manual Static posturesdexterity and cause a worker to use more Quick motionsforce than necessary to perform a task.These risk factors, either alone or in com Compression or contact stressbination, can subject workers’ shoulders, Vibrationarms, hands, wrists, backs, and legs to thousands of repetitive twisting, forceful, or flex Cold temperaturesing motions during a typical workday. Tocontribute to MSDs, however, these risk factors must be present for a sufficient duration,What types of work are most likelyfrequency, or magnitude.Can non-work-related factors causeMSDs?to pose ergonomic hazards?MSDs affect workers in almost every occupation and industry in the nation and inYes. Risk factors not related to your job can workplaces of all sizes. The disorders occurcause or contribute to MSDs. These factors most frequently in jobs that involve: Manual handling,include: Manufacturing and production, Physical conditioning; Medical conditions, such as obesity, diabe- Heavy lifting, Twisting movements, andtes, and arthritis; Long hours of working in awkward Pregnancy;positions. Hobbies that are hand intensive or requiremanual handling. In these instances, however, because one can control the duration How do I know if I have an MSD?and exposures, hobbies usually are not pri- You could have a work-related MSD if youexperience any of the following:mary risk factors; and Numbness in your fingers, Psychological or social workplace stress. Numbness in your thighs, Difficulty moving your finger, Stiff joints, or Back pain.When lifting, maintainan upright position andavoid bending andtwisting. Avoid liftingwhile sitting.What parts of the body are mostaffected by MSDs?MSDs can affect nearly all tissues in thehuman body: the nerves, tendons, tendonsheaths, and muscles. The most frequentlyaffected areas of the body are the arms andthe back.

Tendon disorders such as tendinitis, tenosynovitis, De Quervain’s disease, trigger finger, and carpal tunnel syndrome are the mostcommon occupational MSDs associated withthe arm.Tendon disorders are very common andoften occur at or near the joints where the tendons rub against other tendons, ligaments, orbones. The most frequently noted symptomsof tendon disorders are a dull aching sensation over the tendon, discomfort with specificmovements, and tenderness to touch. Recovery is usually slow, and the condition may easily become chronic if the physical stressescausing the problem are not eliminated or reduced.Another MSD that has received increasedattention in recent years is carpal tunnel syndrome, or CTS, which affects the hands andwrists. CTS is the compression and entrapment of the median nerve where it passesthrough the wrist into the hand—in the carpal tunnel. The median nerve is the mainnerve that extends down the arm to the handand provides the sense of touch in the thumb,index finger, middle finger, and half of thefourth, or ring, finger.When irritated, tendons housed inside thenarrow carpal tunnel swell and press againstthe nearby median nerve. The pressure causestingling, numbness, or severe pain in the wristand hand—often felt while sleeping. The pressure also results in a lack of strength in thehand and an inability to make a fist, holdobjects, or perform other manual tasks. If thepressure continues, it can damage the nerve,causing permanent loss of sensation and evenpartial paralysis.CTS develops in the hands and wrists fromrepetitive and forceful manual tasks performed without time to recover. Any workerwhose job demands a lot of repetitive wrist,hand, and arm motion—not necessarily forceful—could develop CTS.Another MSD that accounts for a significant loss of productivity and large compensation costs to industry is back injury. Workers cite back disorders most often, after thecommon cold and flu, as reasons for missingwork.The most common back problems arepulled or strained muscles, ligaments, andtendons. More serious disorders involve spinal discs. More than half the work force experience back pain at least once during a lifetime.When repetitive pulling and straining injures back muscles or ligaments, the backmuscles, discs, and ligaments can becomescarred and weakened and lose their abilityto support the back. This makes additional injuries more likely.How much does it cost to preventMSDs?Many solutions to ergonomic problems inthe workplace are simple and inexpensive. ForThe High Cost of MSDs MSDs account for 34 percent of all lost-workday injuries and illnesses. Employers report nearly 600,000 MSDs requiring time away from work every year. MSDs account for 1 of every 3 spent for workers’ compensation. MSDs each year account for more than 15 billion to 20 billion in workers’ compensation costs. Total direct costs add up to as much as 50 billion annually. On average, it takes workers 28 days recover from carpal tunnel syndrome, longerthan the time needed to recover from amputation or fractures. Workers with severe injuries can face permanent disability that prevents themfrom returning to their jobs or handling simple, everyday tasks. Ergonomics: The Study of Work

example, awkward and uncomfortable positions can be eliminated by: Adjusting the height of working surfaces, Providing telephone headsets, Supplying anti-fatigue mats, Varying tasks, Providing short breaks, Reducing the weight and size of items workers must lift, Putting supplies and equipment within easyreach of the worker, Providing ergonomic chairs or stools, and Supplying the right tool for the job and theright handle for the worker.Good ergonomics is good economics.How can ergonomics help myworkplace?Providing a workplace free of ergonomichazards can do the following: Lower injury rates as MSD incidences godown; Increase productivity by making jobs easierand more comfortable for workers; Improve product quality because fewer errors will be made when using automatedprocesses that demand less physical effort; Reduce absences because workers will beless likely to take time off to recover frommuscle soreness, fatigue, and MSD-relatedproblems; Reduce turnover as new hires are more likelyto find an ergonomically designed job withintheir physical capacity; Lower costs as workers’ compensation andother payments for illness and replacementworkers go down; Improve worker safety; Increase worker comfort; Reduce worker fatigue; and Improve worker morale.Top Ten Occupations for MSDs Nurses aides, orderlies, and attendants Truck drivers Laborers not involved in constructionwork Assemblers Janitors and cleaners Registered nurses Stock handlers and baggers Construction laborers Cashiers CarpentersSource: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of LaborStatistics, News Release, “Lost-worktime Injuries andIllnesses; Characteristics and Resulting Time Away fromWork, 1998,” April 20, 2000. Online at www.bls.gov.What can I do to detect and preventergonomic hazards at my workplace?MSDs are often easy to prevent. If you arean employer whose workplace poses ergonomic risk factors or whose workers reportMSDs, you can address this problem by: Establishing an ergonomics program, and Providing and encouraging employees toparticipatein the ergonomics program andin decisions affecting their safety andhealth.If you are an employee who is exposedto ergonomic risk factors, you should: Participate in your employer’s ergonomicsprogram; and Provide feedback to supervisors and employers through available channels, such asan established employee safety and healthcommittee.Effective ergonomic programs should include the following elements: Management commitment and employeeparticipation, Job hazard analysis, Controlling ergonomic risk, MSD management, and Training and education.

Examples of Musculoskeletal DisordersBody PartsAffectedSymptomsPossible CausesWorkersAffectedDisease Namethumbspain at the baseof the thumbstwisting andgrippingbutchers, housekeepers,packers, seamstresses, cuttersDe Quervain’sdiseasefingersdifficulty movingfinger; snappingand jerkingmovementsrepeatedly usingthe index fingersmeatpackers,poultry workers,carpenters,electronicassemblerstrigger fingershoulderspain, stiffnessworking with thehands above theheadpower pressoperators,welders, painters,assembly lineworkersrotator cufftendinitishands, wristspain, swellingrepetitive orforceful hand andwrist motionscore making,poultry processing, meatpackingtenosynovitisfingers, handsnumbness,tingling; ashenskin; loss offeeling andcontrolexposure tovibrationchain saw, pneumatic hammer,and gasolinepowered tooloperatorsRaynaud’ssyndrome(white finger)fingers, wriststingling, numbness, severe pain;loss of strength,sensation in thethumbs, index, ormiddle or half ofthe ring fingersrepetitive andforceful manualtasks withouttime to recovermeat and poultryand garmentworkers, upholsterers, assemblers, VDToperators,cashierscarpal tunnelsyndromebacklow back pain,shooting pain ornumbness in theupper legswhole bodyvibrationtruck and busdrivers, tractorand subwayoperators; warehouse workers;nurses aides;grocery cashiers;baggage handlersback disabilityErgonomics: The Study of Work

What is job hazard analysis?Job hazard analysis identifies problemjobs and risk factors associated with them.This step helps employers determine whatjobs and work stations are the source of thegreatest problems. The most effectiveworksite analyses include all jobs, operations,and work activities where there are ergonomic risk factors, regardless of whether theemployer’s medical records indicate thatworkers have developed MSDs.A thorough job analysis is important tosuccessfully prevent or reduce the variousMSD hazards at a work site. Workers exposedto ergonomic risk factors may develop a variety of symptoms. Moreover, a combinationof factors in a single job or work station maycause MSDs. For example, research hasshown that various symptoms among VDToperators result from problems in equipment, work stations, the office environment,and job design, or a combination of these. Inaddition, VDT operators experience not justone simple MSD, but often eyestrain, headaches, and excessive fatigue as well as neck,back and muscle pain, and stress. A comprehensive analysis of the worksite will identify the interplay of how various ergonomicrisk factors affect workers.Video display terminals(VDTS) should be equippedwith adjustable anddetachable keyboards,display screens that tilt upand down, brightness andcontrast controls, and flexiblecopy holders that reduce thedistance between the screenand the source material.CTS and Repetitive MotionThe meatpacking industry is one of themost hazardous industries in the UnitedStates because workers can make as manyas several thousand repetitive motions perday in assembly line processes, such asdeboning meats, with no variation in motion. The motions place physical stress andstrain on the wrists and hands, resultingin CTS.In manufacturing, garment makers,who often perform fast-paced pieceworkoperations involving excessive repetitivetasks, increase their risk of developing CTS.Garment industry jobs often require workers to push large amounts of materialsthrough machinery while sitting onunadjustable metal stools. Workers doingthese jobs can sustain disabling wrist, back,and leg injuries.How do I control ergonomic riskfactors?Employers can prevent MSD hazards byproperly designing the job or work station andselecting the appropriate tools or equipmentfor that job. Based on information from thejob analysis, an employer can establish procedures to correct or control risk factors byusing: Appropriate engineering controls, such aswork station, tool, and equipment design orredesign; Work practices, such as proper lifting techniques and keeping work areas clean; Administrative controls, such as workerrotation, more task variety, and increasedrest breaks, and if necessary; Personal protective equipment, such as kneepads, vibration gloves, and similar devices.

The National Institute for OccupationalSafety and Health recommends using the following guidelines in jobs requiring manualhandling: Minimize the distance between the load andthe body. Lift loads from knuckle height. Keep the travel distance for the lift to lessthan 10 feet. Minimize twisting. Provide good handles for grasping loads.It is also important that work tools andequipment be ergonomically designed. Mosthand tools are designed for only occasionaluse, not for repetitive use over prolonged periods. When acquiring tools for regular use inan industrial setting, an employer should consider the following ergonomic features: Tools should be light-weight and handlesdesigned to allow a relaxed grip so the wristscan remain straight. Tools should be designed for use with eitherhand and be of various sizes so they are appropriate for all workers. Tool handles should be shaped so that theycontact the largest possible surface of theinner hand and fingers. Avoid tool handleswith sharp edges and corners. Use power tools to reduce the amount ofhuman force and repetition required. Purchase low-vibration tools to reduce toolvibration, and, if necessary, fit absorbent rubber sleeves over the tool handle.Maintenance of tools and equipment alsois essential in preventing or reducing ergonomic hazards. Keep tools sharp and maintain them according to the manufacturer’sspecifications. Proper maintenance also canhelp reduce vibration resulting from prolonged equipment operation.What comprises MSD management?MSD management is another importantelement of an effective ergonomics program.Ergonomics: The Study of WorkAn Uplifting SolutionProblem: At a glass ceramic cooktopplant, workers manually lift uncut platesof glass onto a waist-high conveyor belt,where it is then stacked vertically on anearby L-shaped holder. A forklifthandles the strapped holder carrying theglass. The holder, however, presents theglass at knee-height, making workersbend each time to pick up the glass.Solution: The workers devised a standmade from a wooden shipping crate andplaced it beneath the L-holder to raisethe glass to waist height.Cost: A little labor.Proper MSD management focuses on earlyidentification and evaluation of signs andsymptoms of MSDs and helps eliminate or reduce the risk of developing MSDs.Employers should include the followingelements in any MSD management program: Injury and illness recordkeeping; Early recognition and reporting of MSDsymptoms; Systematic evaluation and referral to a qualified health care provider; Conservative treatment, such as restrictedduty jobs, when necessary; Conservative return to work; Systematic monitoring, including periodicworkplace walkthroughs; Adequate staffing and facilities where employers provide on-site evaluation; Employee training and education; Access to health care providers for eachwork shift; and No barriers to early reporting.

What type of training and educationprogram do I need?A Perfect FitTraining programs will go a long way toward increasing safety awareness amongmanagers and supervisors, designers, buyers,mechanics, and workers who perform thejobs. Training and education ensure that employers sufficiently inform workers about ergonomic risk factors at their worksites so theyare better able to participate actively in theirown protection. Suggestions and input fromworkers aware of ergonomic risk factors canbe very helpful in designing improved workplaces to reduce MSD hazards.A good ergonomics training program willteach employees how to properly use equipment, tools, and machine controls as well asthe correct way to perform job tasks.For example, employers should encouragework methods that allow workers to keeptheir joints in a neutral position (wrists straightand elbows bent at a right angle) while usingtools requiring manual force to prevent excessive force on joints and tendons. Employersalso should tell workers to avoid all side-toside twisting and quick motions of their wristsand to keep their hands in line with their forearms while using tools or operating equipment. Employers should provide the appropriate controls or tools, as necessary, to reduceor eliminate awkward positions.To minimize or prevent back disorders,employers should teach workers to avoid longreaches, maintain neutral postures, and useproper lifting techniques. Using correctposture is important whether an employee isProblem: Employees in a poultry processing plant complained that ill-fittingprotective gloves did not provide adequate protection.Solution: The poultry processing company bought workers protective glovesfrom several manufacturers to providea wide range of sizes for better fit.Cost: Negligible.sitting, standing, pulling, pushing, lifting, orusing tools or equipment. Training workersin general lifting techniques also can help reduce the strain leading to back disorders. Forexample, employees should use their legmuscles and bend their knees to pick up andlower heavy loads. Providing appropriateequipment, such as conveyors or carts, lifttables and list assists, can also reduce loadweight, minimizing incorrect lifting and potential injury.How do I begin an ergonomicsprogram at my workplace?If you are an employer who has identifiedthe need for an ergonomics program at yourworksite, start by planning the program andthe goals, and then put it into action.Arm Them with Knowledge!Problem: Employees in many different offices experience pain from their daily tasks.Solution: Train workers to properly use the adjustments already provided in theirchairs, computer monitors, and furniture systems. Changes in the placement oftelephones, printers, and in-boxes can lead to better working posture. In addition,training and encouraging employees to take micro-breaks help overused parts ofthe body rest and recuperate.Cost: Nothing.

Really Turning It Around.Problem: Workers pack items intorectangular boxes, positioned so theymust reach repeatedly across the longaxis of the boxes, exposing their backs,shoulders, and arms to physical stress.Solution: Rotating the boxes allowsworkers to reach across the shorteraxis of the box, reducing the length ofreach and the risk of injury.Cost: Nothing.You also may want to contact the ergonomics coordinator at the nearest OSHA RegionalOffice listed elsewhere in this brochure for further information and assistance. You can alsofind out about programs such as OSHA’s afree consultation program, which can help youfind out about potential hazards at yourworksite, improve your occupational safetyand health management systems, or qualifyfor a 1-year exemption from routine OSHA inspections. If you are in a state that operatesits own OSHA-approved safety and healthplan, please contact your state plan office.State plans and consultation programs arelisted on OSHA’s website under Outreach.How can I find out more aboutergonomics?For more information about ergonomics,contact the ergonomics coordinator at yourOSHA Regional Office, visit the ErgonomicsPage on OSHA’s website at www.osha.gov, orcall 1 (800) 321-OSHA.Move work surfaces closerto the body and to acomfortable height. Ergonomics: The Study of WorkOSHA publishes booklets and fact sheetsdetailing agency policy and regulations. Publications are listed on OSHA’s website, or youalso may contact the OSHA Publications Office, P.O. Box 37535, Washington, DC 200127535, (202) 693-1888.A wide range of publications on ergonomics are available from the National Institutefor Occupational Safety and Health by calling 1-800-35-NIOSH, or through the link onOSHA’s website.Some OSHA-approved state plans alsohave materials available on ergonomics, suchas CAL-OSHA’s, Easy Ergonomics: A PracticalApproach for Improving the Workplace, atwww.dir.ca. gov/tite8/5110.html.

Glossaryanthropometry - The study of human bodymeasurements. Used in developing designstandards and requirements for manufacturedproducts to ensure they are suitable for theintended audience.Raynaud’s syndrome, or white finger - Bloodvessels of the hand are damaged from repeated exposure to vibration long period oftime. The skin and muscles do not get the necessary oxygen from the blood and eventuallydie. Symptoms include intermittent numbbiomechanics - A scientific and engineering ness and tingling in the fingers; pale, ashen,field that explains the charateristics of biologi- and cold skin; eventual loss of sensation andcal system–the human body–in mechanical control in the hands and fingers.terms.tendinitis - Tendon inflammation occurringcarpal tunnel syndrome - The compression when a muscle or tendon is repeatedly tensedand entrapment of the median nerve where it from overuse or unaccustomed use of thepasses through the wrist into the hand—in the wrist and shoulder.carpal tunnel. The median nerve is the mainnerve that extends down the arm to the hand tenosynovitis - Inflammation or injury to theand provides the sense of touch in the thumb, synovial sheath surrounding the tendon. Usuindex finger, middle finger, and half of the ally results from repetition excessive repetifourth, or ring, finger.tive motion.De Quervain’s disease - Inflammation of thetendon sheath of the thumb attributed to excessive friction between two thumb tendonsand their common sheath. Usually caused bytwisting and forceful gripping motions withthe hands.trigger finger - A tendon disorder that occurswhen there is a groove in the flexing tendonof the finger. If the tendon becomes locked inthe s

What is ergonomics? Ergonomics can be defined simply as the study of work. More specifically, ergonomics is the science of designing the job to fit the worker, rather than physically forcing the worker’s body to fit the job. Adapting tasks, work stations,

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