Seouj Pue 'soajzv 'eAejAi 9i L Jo

2y ago
27 Views
5 Downloads
3.86 MB
16 Pages
Last View : 1m ago
Last Download : 2m ago
Upload by : Eli Jorgenson
Transcription

1

-seouj pue 'soajzv'eAejAi 9i l joS1U8UJ9A9ILJOV

Setting the StageCivilizations of the AmericasIn the last unit, you learned about Japan. In this unit, you will explorethree great civilizations of the Americas: the Maya, the Aztecs, and the Incas.These civilizations flourished in Central and South America. Although theregion extended into the deserts of southern Mexico, most of the area wascovered with dense vegetation. Pine forests covered the mountain highlands.Thick rain forests and jungles, broad grasslands, and swamps spread acrossthe warmer, wetter lowlands.AT LAN TICOCEANPACIFICOCEANMayan civilizationInca civilization500-1500 —IAztec civilization1,000 miles'1,000 ktlomelersThe Mayan, Aztec, and Inca Civilizations

More than 10,000 years ago, bands of hunter-gatherers crossed a landbridge that once linked Asia and North America. By 7000 B.C.E., Mesoamericawas home to many hunter-gather settlements.Over time, people settled in small villages and began farming.They grewcorn, beans, squash and other foods. As the population increased, differentcultures, languages, and religions arose. People exchanged goods and ideas.Some settlements grew from centers of trade or religion into massive citystates.In this unit, we'll focus primarily on the period from 300 C.E., when theMayan civilization first reached its height, to the early 1500s C.E., at the endof the Aztec and Inca Empires.The three civilizations we'll explore in this unit were different in manyrespects. But all three had a stable food supply; technology; a social structurewith different jobs and status levels; a system of government; a religioussystem; and a highly developed culture that included architecture, art, andmusic.Let's start our exploration of the Americas with the Maya.ATLA NT1CATLANTICOCi:\\ \\CIFIC(t (' I-A NOCEANPACIFICOCEANw0D500 1.000 kilometersFeelOver 13,0016,501-13,0003,001-6,500t, 501-3,000701-1,500MetersOver 4.001Tropical wet5001,000 kilometersJ Subtropical dryr-001 4 oooTropical wel and dry 1,001-2,000501-1,000201-500SemiaridI Humid oceanicDesertI HighlandPhysical Features of the AmericasI Humid subtropicalClimate Regions in the Americas257

I *

CHAPTERThe Maya built entire cities of stone.Theruins of the ancient city ofTikal still stand.The Maya23.1 IntroductionOur journey through the Americas begins with an exploration of the Mayancivilization. This great civilization lasted 3,500 years, from about 2000 B.C.E. to1500 C.E. At its peak, it included present-day southern Mexico and large portions ofCentral America. In this chapter, you will learn about some of the most importantachievements of the Mayan civilization.You can still see the ruins of some amazing stone cities built by the Maya,The ruins of the ancient city ofTikal (shown on the opposite page) lie deep in theGuatemalan jungle.Imagine standing at the heart of this city in the year 750 C.E. You are in a large,open plaza surrounded by eight soaring temple-pyramids. They reach into the skylike mountains. On the ground, as far as you can see, are structures on raisedplatforms. The structures are paintedin bright colors. Nearby, in the center of the city, you see large palacesmade of hand-cut limestone blocks.These palaces are the homes of theruler, priests, and nobles. Fartherout arc the stone houses of the merchants and artisans. At the very edgeof the city, you glimpse thousands ofsmall, matched-roof house-moundswhere the peasants live.Tikal was only one of more than40 Mayan cities. How did the Mayacreate such great cities and such anadvanced civilization? In this chapter, you will trace the developmentof Mayan civilization. Then you willtake a closer look at several aspectsof Mayan culture, includingclass structure, familyUse these drawings as a graphic organizer to help you rememberlife, religious beliefs andkey aspects of Mayan life.practices, and agriculturaltechniques.The Maya259

Mesoamerica "MiddleAmerica," the region extendingfrom modern-day Mexico throughCentral AmericaOne of the most extraordinaryachievements of the Olmec was theirmonumental stone heads, believedto be portraits of their leaders. Morethan 30 such heads have been discovered. They stand over 8 feethigh and weigh about 10 tons.The massive heads were sculptedwithout the use of metal tools.260Chapter 2323.2 The Development ofMayan CivilizationWhile the Roman Empire was declining in western Europe, theMaya were creating an advanced civilization in the Americas. Mayancivilization reached its height between 300 and 900 C.F. During thistime, Mayan culture spread over much of Mesoamerica, includingpart of present-day southern Mexico, Belize, most of Guatemala, andparts of Honduras and El Salvador.The landscape in which the Maya lived varied greatly. In the south,pine forests covered the mountain highlands. In the northern and centralregions were rainforests, grasslands, and swamps. These areas areknown as the lowlands. Thick jungle covered the southern part of thelowlands. This is where Mayan civilization reached its highest development. Today this area is called the Peten region of Guatemala.The Origins of Mayan CivilizationThe Maya built their civilization in part onideas they inherited from a people called theOlmec. The Olmec lived in the jungle areason the east coast of Mexico. Their civili/atkmreached its peak between 1200 and 500 B.C.E.Like early civilizations in other parts of theworld, the Olmec civilization was based onagriculture. By 2000 B.C.E., people in parts ofMexico had turned from hunting and gatheringto farming as their main source of food. A particularly important crop was maize, or corn.Farming allowed the Olmec to createpermanent settlements. The Olmec establishedfarming villages throughout the region. Theyalso created trade routes that stretched forhundreds of miles.By 1400 B.C.E., the Olmec had a capital citythat boasted palaces, temples, and monuments.They were the first Mesoamericans to developlarge religious and ceremonial centers. Theywere also the first to use a solar (sun) calendar. The Maya would buildon all these achievements.Three Periods of Mayan Civilization Mayan civilizationbegan to arise in eastern and southern Mexico around 2000 B.C.E.Historians divide the history of Mayan civilization into three mainperiods: Pre-Classic, Classic, and Post-Classic.The long Pre-Classic period lasted from about 2000 B.C.E. to 300 C.E.During this time, the Maya farmed the land and lived in simple housesand compounds, or groups of buildings.

Gradually, Mayan culture became more complex. As the Mayanpopulation grew, settlements became larger. The Maya began constructing public buildings for governmental and religious purposes. About50 B.C.E., they began to adapt the writing system of the Olmec anddevelop their own system of hieroglyphic writing. Mayan civilizationreached its peak during the Classic period, from around 300 to 900 C.E.The achievements you will study in this chapter date from this time.During the Classic Period, the Maya adapted and developed ideasthey had learned from the Olmec. For example, they improved onOlmec building techniques. Even though the Maya lacked metal toolsand had not discovered the wheel, they built enormous stone cities thatboasted elaborate and highly decorated temple-pyramids and palaces.The Maya also built observatories for studying the heavens. Theycharted the movements of the moon, stars, and planets. They usedtheir knowledge of astronomy and mathematics to create complex andhighly accurate calendars.Mayan society during theMayan Civilization, About 900 C.E.Classic period consisted of manyMaya Empireindependent states. Each state hadNorthern lowlandsfarming communities and oneor more cities. At its height, theSouthern lowlandsMayan Empire included overJ Highlands40 cities, including Tikal, Copan.Chichen It/a, and Palenque.Around 900 C.E., the Classiccivili/.ation collapsed. The Mayaabandoned their cities in thesouthern lowland area, and thegreat cities fell into ruin in thejungle. No one knows for certainwhy this happened. At the end ofthis chapter, we will look at sometheories that may explain themystery.To the north, on the Yucatan Peninsula, Mayan cities continued toprosper during the Post-Classic period. This period lasted from about900 C.E. to 1500 C.E. During this time, the Maya continued their warfareand empire building, but they had fewer great artistic and culturalachievements.Even at the height of their empire, the Maya were not one unifiednation. Instead they lived in many city-states with separate governments. What united them as Maya was their common culture: theirsocial system, languages, calendar, religion, and way of life. Let'stake a closer look at some aspects of Mayan culture, starting withclass structure.hieroglyphic writing that usespictures as symbols.The Maya261

The social pyramid of the Mayancivilization shows the ruler of eachcity-state at the top with the rest ofMayan society below him. Each layerof the pyramid represents a differentgroup of people and their level ofimportance in the society. Notice thatthere are many more people at thebottom of the pyramid than at the top.23.3 Class Structuresocial pyramid a social structure in the shape of a pyramid,with layers representing socialclasses of different rank or status262Chapter 23During the Classic period, the Maya lived in independent city-states,like Tikal. Within each state, Mayan society was structured like a pyramid. The ruler of each city-state was at the top of the social pyramid.The rest of Mayan society was organized in a series of layers below him.The Ruler The highest authority in the state was the halach uinic,a Mayan word that means "true man." He ruled the state with the helpof his advisors. He decided when and where to go to war.The Mayan ruler was considered a god-king. During religious ceremonies, he wore a headdress that was as tall as a person. When he died,a son or other close male relative succeeded him. Mayan rulers werealmost always men, but scholars believe that women had considerableinfluence, probably through family relationships.Nobles and Priests The next layer in the social pyramid wasmade up of nobles and priests. They were the only members of Mayansociety who knew how to read and write.The nobles served as officials, and oversaw the administration ofthe states. They gathered taxes, supplies, and labor for projects likethe construction of temples. Nobles led peasant armies in times of war.During battles, they wore elaborate costumes, including gold jewelryand animal robes made from the skin of jaguars.Priests were important because they maintained favor with the gods.Like nobles, they inherited their position from their fathers. Priests ledrituals, offered sacrifices, and foretold the future. They were consultedto determine the best days for going into battle. In addition to theirreligious duties, priests were often mathematicians, astronomers, andhealers.

Merchants and Artisans Although the Mayan economy wasbased mostly on farming, trade and crafts were also important. Thesefunctions were carried out by merchants and artisans.The Maya were accomplished traders. They traveled by sea, river,and well-constructed roads to trade with other city-states. Merchantsin the lowlands imported valuable products from the highlands. Theseproducts included stones such as obsidian and jade; copal, a tree sapthat the Maya used as incense during religious ceremonies; and quetzals,birds with shiny green feathers used in headdresses.Mayan artisans made a wide variety of objects, many of themdesigned to pay tribute to the gods. They painted books on paper madefrom the bark of fig trees. Artists painted murals, or wall paintings, ofMayan life and important battles. They created sculptures for templesand decorative designs on palace walls. The Maya were also skilledweavers and potters.Peasants The peasants were the backbone of Mayan society.They worked hard on the land, growing maize, squash, beans, and othercrops to feed the population. During the growing season, men spentmost of the day in the fields, farming with wooden hoes. Womenusually stayed closer to home, preparing food, weaving, and sewing.When they were not working on the land, peasants spent time building pyramids and temples. In exchange for their work, they sometimesattended royal weddings and religious events. Peasants also served assoldiers during wars.Slaves At the bottom of the social pyramid were the slaves.Slaves performed manual labor for their owners. Some were borninto slavery, but free people sometimes became slaves. Some childrenbecame slaves when their parents sold them for money to feed therest of the family. War prisoners of humble origin were made slaves.(Those of higher rank were sacrificed to the gods.) And some peoplewere made slaves as a punishment for serious crimes.In general, slaves were not treated badly. Sometimes they actuallyhad easier lives than peasants, depending on what job they did andwhere their masters lived. But slaves were not free to come and goas they pleased. Often they were sacrificed when their masters died.Now that we've looked at the Mayan class structure, let's take alook at what daily life was like for the majority of Maya: the peasants.Slaves in Mayan society performed avariety of tasks for their masters.The Maya263

Mayan families had many daily tasks,23.4 Family Lifeincluding weaving, cooking, washingIn city-states like Copan (in present-day Honduras), Mayan peasantslived in one-room huts built of interwoven poles covered with driedmud. Several family houses were often grouped around a courtyard.A house containing the kitchen was often placed directly behind themain house. Peasant families worked hard, but ceremonies and ritualsprovided a break from work and a chance to honor important events.Duties of Family Members Life for Mayan peasant familieswas not easy. Mayan women rose before dawn to gel the fire burning inthe fireplace. With the help of her daughters, a Mayan woman cleanedthe corn that had been boiled and left to soak and soften overnight.Then she set to work at the grinding stone, pounding corn into meal.She patted the meal into tortillas (a Spanish word meaning "littlebreads") or tamales and cooked them over the fire. These might serveas the morning meal, or they might be saved for dinner. On specialdays, they might also have hot chocolate, a drink the Maya made fromcacao beans.During the day, women and older girls cared for small children andfor the family's few animals, like ducks and turkeys. They swept theirhomes, and they gathered, spun, and wove cotton into cloth.Mayan fathers and sons ate their morning meal quickly beforeleaving to work the fields. When they weren't busy with the crops,men and boys hunted and trapped animals. They also helped constructlarge buildings such as palaces and temples. In times of war, peasantmen served as soldiers.Special Occasions Although Mayan families worked hard,they also took time to celebrate the important events in their lives. Theclothes, fishing, and working the land.ritual a set of actions that isalways performed the same wayas part of a religious ceremony264Chapter 23

birth of a child was a time of rejoicing. As soon as possible after thebirth, the family called in a priest to perform a ceremony much likebaptism. The priest forecast the baby's future and gave advice to helpguide the parents in raising the child.At three months of age, girls went through another ceremony. Thenumber 3 was special to Mayan women because it represented the threestones of the fireplace. In the three-month ceremony, the baby girl wasintroduced to the tools she would use throughout her life. Small itemswere placed in the baby's hands, such as tools for spinning and weaving, carrying water and cooking, and soaking and grinding maize.A similar ceremony was held for boys at four months of age. Thenumber 4 was special to Mayan men. It represented the four sides ofthe plot of land where a boy would spend his life. The baby boy wasgiven farmer's tools, such as axes and planting sticks, and the spears,knives, and traps of a hunter.Another important ceremony in every Mayan child's life was thecoming-of-age ceremony. Girls went through this ceremony al iheage of 12, boys at 14. The long ceremony involved confessions, cleansing with water, and reciting the rules of behavior. Finally, the priest cuta white bead from the boys* hair and removed astring of red shells from around the girls' waists.Boys and girls had worn these symbols of innocence since they were quite young.Marriage Customs The next big eventfor a Mayan youth was marriage. Men usuallymarried around the age of 20. Girls married whenthey were as young as 14.The bride and groom did not choose eachother. Instead, marriages were negotiated by thevillage atanzahab, or matchmaker. These negotiations were not simple. Families had to agree onhow much food and clothing would be given tothe bride's family. They also had to agree on thenumber of years a young man would work for hisnew wife's family.Once the details of a marriage were workedout. the villagers built a hut for the couple behindthe home of the bride's parents. When the homewas ready, the bride and groom put on clothingwoven for the occasion. After a priest blessed themarriage, the villagers celebrated.Clearly, rituals and ceremonies were an important part of daily life to the Maya. Let's look moreclosely at Mayan religious beliefs and practices.coming-of-age ceremonya ceremony that celebrates theend of childhood and acceptanceinto the adult communityThe marriage ceremony was animportant event in the life of a youngMayan man or woman.The Maya265

23.5 Religious Beliefs and Practicessacrifice a gift of an animal forslaughter as a way to honor godsIn this reproduction of a Mayanpainting, a richly dressed priest isbeing served by slaves during aMayan religious ceremony.Religion was very important to the Maya. The Maya built their citiesaround ceremonial and religious centers. Their magnificent templepyramids rose high above the jungle canopy, like mountains reachinginto the sky. Temple plazas provided gathering places for people toattend rituals and ceremonies.Scholars have learned about the Mayan religion from studyingpresent-day Mayan practices, ancient artifacts, and documents writtenduring the Post-Classic period. Here are some of the things they havediscovered.Beliefs and Rituals The Mayan religion was polytheistic,which means it included many gods. In fact, the Maya believed inmore than 160 gods. The primary Mayan gods were forces or objectsin nature that affected people's daily lives, like the god of rain, the godof corn, and the god of death. Many gods had animal characteristics.The jaguar was especially important to the Maya.The Maya believed that the gods had created the world and couldinfluence or even destroy it. The same god that sent life-giving raincould also ruin the crops with hailstones. So, it was extremely important to honor the gods.According to Mayan beliefs, only priests could explain signs andlead people through rituals aimed at pleasing the gods. Priests performed sacrifices and conductedceremonies. They consultedsacred books, read omens, interpreted signs, and predicted thefuture. No decision was madewithout seeking the gods1 advice.No action was taken without firsthonoring the gods.The Maya honored their godswith offerings such as plants,food, flowers, feathers, jade, andshells. The Maya believed thatblood gave the gods strength, sothey also made blood offerings bysacrificing animals and, sometimes, humans. The people whowere sacrificed were usuallyorphans, slaves, and nobles captured during war.In the ancient city of ChichenItza, on the Yucatan Peninsula,humans were sacrificed by being

thrown into a sacred well whose water level was 60 feet below theground. Any victims who survived the fall were pulled from the waterand asked what message they ha

'eAejAi 9i l jo S1U8UJ9A9ILJOV. Setting the Stage Civilizations of the Americas In the last unit, you learned about Japan. In this unit, you will explore three great civilizations of the Americas: the Maya, the Aztecs, and the Incas. These civilizations flourished in Central and South America. Although the

Related Documents:

Z-Z' 811 Z666Z\ OOS00' SV860 sanlen Alaadoad 8uiuieluiew Aq Alp aqljo Allllge}s d! wouopa ay1 a} owoad of iy pue :spaezey A1a4es pue q eay suazl} lp po oad of ' sal2aadoad Ie11uaplsaa pue leulsnpul ' lePaawwoD Jo A11anpas ao/ pue apueua} ulew alenbape aansua of 'Z paly8llq 8ulwoDaq wail seam lela} snpul pu

aie qoi qm saoi/uas pue slon poid asnoq lo luoil, astid woo sai . Idd . nS PeAoiddV . eql. lo Alpofew . eqi -siewolsno lo Aleles . eql . pue soiullo . 10 . ss000ns . aql . ol eoueliodwi. leollpo . lo AisnolAqo si Al!lenb aoi/uas pue l on P OJ d N JO N Gu aL41 ol pailddns sailddns PaAoiddV lo Al!lenb . aql . joiluoo pue jopow ol VO-1 smolle .

segments, according to the size of the solar product or service they sell: 1. Plug and play (P&P) PUE 'kits' are supplier- financed, offering important entry technologies but with limited value-addition. 2. Component-based solar PUE dominate the market and capture more value for Kenyan suppliers and end users, but sales are severely

.-5 - GRADOS CENTIGRADOS 100 DESARROLLO MICROBIANO 77 74 71 66 Mu rte de las triquinas (temperatura 6 5 0 crltlca) 8 54 En 12-24 horas las bacterias pue-I den multiplicarse 3000 veces. 27

esparcen en el aire microbios muy peque-ñitos, los cuales luego caen sobre las cosas que la gente toca. La COVID-19 se pue-de transmitir fácil-mente de una perso-na a otra, en especial cuando alguien que está enfermo tose o estornuda. Es muy importante cubrirte la nariz y la boca con un pañuelo desechable o con la parte interna del codo

Esta gran metrópolis multicultural conserva en su interior el sencillo encanto de un pue-blo. Los berlineses siguen la máxima de “vive y deja vivir” y otorgan más importan-cia a la libertad personal y a la creatividad que a la riqueza material y a los símbolos de estatus. Los cafés están llenos a todas horas,

El otro texto apareció con el título de El Socialismo y el hombre en Cuba, en la histórica revista uruguaya Marcha, en marzo de 1965. El Mensaje a los pue-blos del mundo a través de la Tricontinental fue compuesto como un llamado a tomar las armas para un levantamiento .

IGCSE – Accounting 0452 9 reputation of the firm which equal the difference between the net assets and selling price of the firm. 16. Direct expense of manufacturing There are any expenses which a manufacturer can directly link with the product begin manufactured 17. Appropriation account That account which shows how the profit for the year has been used 18. Collection period for trade .