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file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htmRoutledge Philosophy GuideBook toKant and the Critique of Pure Reason Sebastian Gardner-iii-First published 1999by Routledge11 New Fetter Lane,London EC4P 4EESimultaneously published in theUSA and Canadaby Routledge29 West 35th Street,New York, NY 10001Reprinted 2000Routledge is an imprint of theTaylor & Francis Group 1999 Sebastian GardnerTypeset in Times and Frutiger byThe Florence Group, Stoodleigh,DevonPrinted and bound in Great Britainby Clays Ltd, St Ives plcAll rights reserved. No part of thisbook may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or byany electronic, mechanical, or othermeans, now known or hereafterinvented, including photocopyingand recording, or in any informationstorage or retrieval system, withoutpermission in writing from thepublishers.file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm (1 of 318)7/10/2006 12:32:44 μμ
file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htmBritish Library Cataloguing inPublication DataA catalogue record for this book isavailable from the British Library.Library of Congress Cataloging inPublication DataGardner, Sebastian.Kant and the Critique of purereason / Sebastian Gardner.p. cm. - (Routledgephilosophy guidebooks)Includes bibliographicalreferences and index.1. Kant, Immanuel, 1724-1804.Kritik der reinen Vernunft.2. Knowledge, Theory of.3. Causation. 4. Reason.I. Title. II. Series.B2779.G27 1999 98-42339121-dc 21ISBN 0-415-11908-1 (hbk)ISBN 0-415-11909-X (pbk)-iv-For my mother,Jude, Euan and Benedict,Emma, Bobby and Jade-v-file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm (2 of 318)7/10/2006 12:32:44 μμ
file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htmWe do not deny that the Kantian solution is extremely subtle and is perhapsbalanced on the point of a needle, but who would believe that a solution to thisproblem could be found which was not alarmingly subtle?(Gottfried Martin)Transcendental idealism arises in general through a direct inversion of previousmodes of philosophical explanation.(F. W. J. von Schelling)-vi-ContentsPreface1 The problem of metaphysicsHistorical background: the Enlightenment and its problemsKant’s lifeKant’s pre-Critical vacillation: the indispensable dreams of metaphysicsIs metaphysics possible? (The Preface)The structure of the Critique2 The possibility of objectsThe Critical problem: Kant’s letter to HerzInterpretations of Kant: analytic and idealistThe problem of realityKant’s Copernican revolution3 How are synthetic a priori judgements possible? (TheIntroduction)Kant’s logical formulation of the problem of metaphysicsSynthetic apriority: objections and replies-vii-file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm (3 of 318)7/10/2006 12:32:44 μμxi1291320252727303337515158
file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm4 The sensible conditions of objects (The Aesthetic)Kant’s analysis of cognitionThe sensible form of experience: space and timeSpace and time as a priori intuitions: Kant’s argumentsSpace and time in the Analytic5 Transcendental idealismThe doctrine of transcendental idealismThe distinctiveness of transcendental idealismKant’s ontological denialThe argument for transcendental idealism in the AestheticTrendelenburg’s alternativeThe argument for transcendental idealism in the Antinomy6 The conceptual conditions of objects (The Analytic)The argument of the Analytic: questions of methodThe relation of thought to objects: the apriority of conceptual form (Ideaof a Transcendental Logic)The elements of thought: the categories (The Clue to the Discovery of allPure Concepts of the Understanding)The preconditions and source of conceptual form: the subject-objectrelation (The Transcendental Deduction)The specific conceptual form of human experience: causally interactingsubstances (The Schematism, The Analogies, The Refutation ofIdealism)Transcendental arguments, transcendental idealism and Kant’s reply tothe skepticMeasurement and modality (The Axioms of Intuition, The Anticipations ofPerception, The Postulates of Empirical 165188196-viii-Transcendent objects: the concept of noumenon (The Ground of theDistinction of all Objects in general into Phenomena and Noumena)Kant’s critique of Leibniz’s method (The Amphiboly)7 Unknowable objects (The Dialectic)Beyond the land of truthTranscendental illusion: reason’s ideas of the unconditionedReason as regulative (The Appendix to the Dialectic)The dialectical inferences of transcendent metaphysics (TheParalogisms, The Antinomy, The Ideal of Pure Reason)Transcendental idealism in the Dialectic I: the dissolution of theoreticalreason’s contradictions (The Paralogisms, The Antinomy)Transcendental idealism in the Dialectic II: the problematic intelligibleworld (The Paralogisms, The Antinomy, The Ideal of Pure Reason)file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm (4 of 318)7/10/2006 12:32:44 μμ198206209209214221225243255
file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htmKant’s destructive achievement8 The meaning of transcendental idealismKant’s empirical realism: the nature of appearanceThe existence of things in themselvesThings in themselves and appearancesThe transcendental ideality of the selfEntering into, and remaining within, the Kantian system9 The complete Critical system (The Canon of Pure Reason)‘What ought I to do?’ The moral law‘What may I hope?’ From morality to GodThe unity and ends of Reason267269271280289298303307308315319-ix-10 The reception and influence of the CritiqueThe immediate reception of the CritiqueAbsolute idealism: Fichte, Schelling and HegelSchopenhauerKant and twentieth-century -PrefaceKant published the Critique of Pure Reason (henceforth Critique) in two editions, and there aresubstantial differences between them. They are interlaced in the translation by N. Kemp Smith(2nd edn, London: Macmillan, 1933), where the ‘A’ numbering in the margin refers to the firstedition and the ‘B’ numbering to the second, corresponding to the pagination of the Germanoriginals. Quotations in this book are taken from this edition, which has hitherto been standardlyemployed in English-language Kant commentary. Two new translations of the Critique haveappeared very recently, the one by W. Pluhar (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), the other by P.Guyer and A. Wood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).References are also made in this book to Kant’s Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics(Proleg) (trans. J. Ellington, Indianapolis: Hackett, 1977), Critique of Practical Reason (CPracR)and Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Gr) (trans. and ed. M. Gregor, in Kant, PracticalPhilosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), Critique of Judgement (CJ) (trans.file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm (5 of 318)7/10/2006 12:32:44 μμ
file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htmW. Pluhar, Indianapolis: Hackett, 1987) and his Philosophical Correspondence, 1759-99 (ed.and trans. A. Zweig, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967). Where material from theseworks is quoted, it is taken-xi-from these editions, and all references are to the marginal pagination. The standard edition ofKant’s works in German is the Prussian Academy edition, Kants gesammelte Schriften, ed.Königlich Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin: Georg Reimer, subsequentlyWalter de Gruyter, 1900-). References to this work are given in the form Ak followed by volumenumber and page number. Regarding Kantian terms such as ‘First Analogy’, ‘fourth paralogism’,capitals are used when referring to a section of the Critique, and lower case when referring tothe argument given or discussed there.It cannot be pretended that the prose of the Critique - its ‘colourless, dry, packing-paper style’and ‘stiff, abstract form’, as the poet Heinrich Heine put it - has many immediate attractions.Kant himself was acutely conscious of the work’s literary limitations, and excused it on thegrounds that what it contains requires quite special technical expression. Kant’s philosophicalvocabulary is baroque and unfamiliar. It does not strictly consist of neologisms, because theterms Kant employs are drawn from earlier philosophical sources and other (mathematical,juridical) quarters, but their meaning cannot be sought outside Kant’s texts. The only remedy forthe difficulty presented by the style and terminology of the Critique is repeated exposure.I should at the outset say something about the approach to Kant taken in this book, if only sothat readers unfamiliar with the Critique and commentary on it should be made aware of how itdiffers from some of the many other approaches which may be taken.The book reflects work, most of it in the last two decades, on Kant’s theoretical philosophy byHenry Allison, Karl Ameriks, Richard Aquila, Ermanno Bencivenga, Graham Bird, GerdBuchdahl, Dieter Henrich, Arthur Melnick, Robert Pippin, Ralph Walker, Wayne Waxman andothers. These writers do not express a single view of Kant by any means, but they share anoutlook to the extent of agreeing that Kant’s metaphysic of transcendental idealism is far frombeing a mere curiosity in the history of philosophy and is instead (at the very least) a highlyinteresting philosophical project. With a view to providing an introduction to the Critique thattakes account of this recent work, this book emphasises the basis, content and implications ofthe-xii-file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm (6 of 318)7/10/2006 12:32:44 μμ
file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htmdoctrine of transcendental idealism, and furthermore seeks to bring out its strengths. It shouldconsequently be emphasised that there is an altogether different line to be found in Kantcommentary, according to which transcendental idealism is an incoherent doctrine, and thesuccess of the Critique lies in a set of metaphysically neutral but epistemologically forcefularguments which may, with more or less difficulty, be isolated from their idealistic environment.The classic work in this school is P. F. Strawson’s The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant’s‘Critique of Pure Reason’ (London: Methuen, 1966). Not dissimilar conclusions have beendefended more recently by Paul Guyer. I have paid some attention to this approach, but chieflyfor purposes of contrast, and have not by any means attempted to represent all that may be saidon its behalf.A further reason for the approach to the Critique taken in this book is provided by its introductorycharacter. Virtually every sentence of the Critique presents difficulties. Attempts have beenmade to provide commentaries comprehensively elucidating each individual section of the work,and some of these run to several volumes without getting near its end. The most that a briefcommentary can hope to do is communicate a broad picture of what Kant says in the Critiquewhich will provide a framework for the study of individual sections and, more importantly, makethis task seem worth pursuing. Highlighting the theme of transcendental idealism again seemedsuited to this purpose.Limitations of space have meant that certain other questions of interpretation could not bepursued. I have ignored what is known as the patchwork theory. In the view of somecommentators (most prominently in the English-language commentary by Norman Kemp Smith)the text of the Critique should be regarded as a composite of elements written at very differentstages of Kant’s philosophical development, the upshot being that Kant’s mature, ‘Critical’ viewrequires a kind of hermeneutical archaeology. This approach to the text is currently not muchfavoured. More perilously, I have not drawn attention to the possibility of identifying quitedifferent, inconsistent philosophical pictures in the two editions of the Critique but insteadproceed on the assumption, which should also be recognised as open to challenge, that this isnot the case.-xiii-One point regarding the organisation of the book. As the contents pages show, transcendentalidealism is treated in two different chapters. The first (chapter 5) aims to give the content of thedoctrine and Kant’s defence of it; the only critical issues discussed are those that pertain to theargument of the Aesthetic. The many further interpretative and critical questions which arise, butwhich cannot be considered without a grasp of the Analytic, are set out in the second chapter ontranscendental idealism (chapter 8), which is more involved, and in which I have made somesuggestions as to how Kant’s position may be understood, though without wishing to give theimpression that such a brief discussion can do any sort of justice to the difficulty of the topic.My account of the Critique has for the greater part been formed by assembling what has struckme as most illuminating in the writings of the authors listed above, particularly Henry Allison’sKant’s Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense (New Haven: Yale Universityfile:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm (7 of 318)7/10/2006 12:32:44 μμ
file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htmPress, 1983) and Robert Pippin’s Kant’s Theory of Form: An Essay on the ‘Critique of PureReason’ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982). These studies make as strong a case ascan be imagined for the value of history of philosophy as itself a form of philosophical enquiry.The form of this book has made it impossible to record my indebtedness in any detail; the worksincluded in the Bibliography at the end are selected with a view to providing readers with a routeinto the secondary literature, and do not necessarily correspond to the material on which mydiscussion draws.I would like to thank Jo Wolff for inviting me to write the book, Maria Stasiak and the editorialstaff at Routledge for their help in its preparation, and the Philosophy Department at BirkbeckCollege for providing me with research leave which allowed me to finish it. I am deeply indebtedto Mark Sacks for detailed comments on the final version which gave me the opportunity toeliminate many philosophical errors and to attempt to rectify many weaknesses. I am alsograteful to Graham Bird, Eric James and Tim Crane for comments and suggestions. Finally Iwish to thank my family for their continued support throughout the period spent writing a bookwithout pictures.-xiv-Chapter 1The problem of metaphysicsIn the Preface to the Critique Kant observes that, although metaphysics is meant to be ‘theQueen of all the sciences’ (Aviii), reason in metaphysics ‘is perpetually being brought to astand’ (Bxiv). Ever and again ‘we have to retrace our steps’ (Bxiv). The degree and quality ofdisagreement in metaphysics makes it a ‘battle-ground’, a site of ‘mock-combats’ in which ‘noparticipant has ever yet succeeded in gaining even so much as an inch of territory’ (Bxv). Theresult is that in the sphere of metaphysics we vacillate between dogmatism, skepticism andindifference. The peculiar instability of metaphysics stands in stark contrast to the security ofmathematics and natural science, and leaves us with no choice but to conclude thatmetaphysics ‘has hitherto been a merely random groping’ (Bxv).Against this background, Kant makes his famous announcement of a Copernican revolution inphilosophy: ‘Hitherto it has been assumed that all our knowledge must conform to objects’, butsince this-1-file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm (8 of 318)7/10/2006 12:32:44 μμ
file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htmassumption has conspicuously failed to yield any metaphysical knowledge, we ‘must thereforemake trial whether we may not have more success in the tasks of metaphysics, if we supposethat objects must conform to our knowledge. . . . We should then be proceeding precisely on thelines of Copernicus’ primary hypothesis’, this being the hypothesis of heliocentrism (Bxvi).This chapter traces the route by which Kant arrived at his view that metaphysics constitutes aproblem, and his view of what exactly the problem of metaphysics consists in. The next chapteroutlines the Copernican revolution, which according to Kant supplies the only possible remedy.Historical background: the Enlightenment and its problemsThe feature of Kant’s philosophy most strongly emphasised in synoptic histories of philosophy isits synthetic relation to the two mighty traditions of rationalism and empiricism - specifically, tothe philosophies of G. W. Leibniz (1646-1716) and David Hume (1711-76). These Kant may besaid to have confronted with one another in such a way as to make the deficiencies of eachpalpable, and then to have shown how his own, ‘Critical’ or ‘transcendental’ philosophy offers asuperior alternative. This is a fruitful way of regarding Kant, if only because he frequentlydescribes himself as doing just that. In broader terms, however, overcoming the opposition ofrationalism and empiricism is a subsidiary theme in Kant’s philosophy: primarily, it is a responseto the deep problems bound up with the project of Enlightenment that dominated the eighteenthcentury.Like all extended periods in the history of ideas, the unity of the Enlightenment, or Age ofReason, becomes visible only when the detailed doctrines of individual thinkers are allowed togo somewhat out of focus: the epoch was of course far from homogeneous and consisted morein a commonality of approach than subscription to any single set of beliefs. With thatqualification, it may be said that the Enlightenment received its chief inspiration from thesuccesses of the scientific revolution in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and wasconcerned with defending what Western thought now takes for granted: the right of each tomake up his own mind on matters-2-file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm (9 of 318)7/10/2006 12:32:44 μμ
file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htmof theoretical or practical substance, in place of appeal to established authority or tradition. Anidentical Reason was held to exist immanently in human nature, needing only to be brought tothe light of day through appropriate pedagogic means. Enlightenment thinkers sought topromote civic and political institutions that would respect individual autonomy and foster thegrowth of knowledge, happiness and virtue. From intellectual emancipation, politicalemancipation would follow. Enlightenment (Aufklärung) is, as Kant put it in an essay whichattempts to define the notion, ‘man’s emergence from his self-incurred immaturity’; its motto is‘Sapere aude!’ (‘Have the courage to use your own reason!’). The programme dictated by thisoutlook consisted in developing what Hume called ‘the science of man’, and in submitting allreceived wisdom and existing practice to the scrutiny of reason. As Kant put it:Our age is, in especial degree, the age of criticism, and to criticism everything mustsu
file:///J /1MyPhilEbooks/2Ξ νοι Φιλ σοφοι/Kant/Routledge Companion to The Critique of Pure reason/htm.htm British Library Cataloguing in
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