4. MARKET FAILURE AND GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION

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Ph: 98851 25025/26www.mastermindsindia.com4. MARKET FAILURE AND GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONQ.No.1. Define Market Failure. What are the major aspects of market failure? (B)1. MARKET FAILURE:a) When the market fails to allocate resources efficiently and therefore, market outcomesbecome inefficient.b) Market failure is a situation in which the free market leads to misallocation of society's scarceresources in the form of either overproduction or underproduction of particular goods andservices leading to a less than optimal outcome.2. Phases of Market Failures:a) The two aspects of market failures are demand-side market failures and supply side marketfailures.b) Demand-side market failures: They occur when the demand curves do not take into accountthe full willingness of consumers to pay for a product.Eg.: None of us will be willing to pay to view a wayside fountain because we can view itwithout paying.c) Supply-side market failures: They occur when supply curves do not incorporate the full cost ofproducing the product.Eg.: A thermal power plant that uses coal do not require to pay the costs to the society for thefumes it discharges into the atmosphere as part of the cost of producing electricitySIMILAR QUESTIONS:1. Define the concept of Market Failure.2. Explain the term Market FailureQ.No.2. Why do markets fail? (A)MARKET FAILURE: Market failure is a situation in which the free market leads to misallocation ofsociety's scarce resources in the form of either overproduction or underproduction of particular goodsand services leading to a less than optimal outcome.Reasons for the Market Failure:There are four major reasons for market failure. They are:CA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.1

No.1 for CA/CWA & MEC/CECMASTER MINDS1. Market Power:Market power or monopoly power is the ability of a firm to profitably raise the market price of agood or service over its marginal cost.a) Firms that have market power are price makers and therefore, can charge a price that givesthem positive economic profits.b) Excessive market power causes monopoly or oligopoly to produce and sell less output thancompetitive market.c) Market power can cause markets to be inefficient because it keeps price higher and outputlower than the outcome of equilibrium of supply and demand.Extreme case of Market power:There is the problem of non-existence of markets or missing markets resulting in failure toproduce various goods and services that are particularly wanted by the people.Ex: The markets for pure public goods do not exist.2. Externalities:a) The costs or benefits which are not reflected by the market price are called externalitiesbecause they are “external” to the market.b) Externality can be defined as when consumption or production activity has an indirect effecton other’s consumption or production activities but should not be reflected directly by marketprices.c) Externalities are also referred to as 'spillover effects', 'neighbourhood effects', 'third-partyeffects' or 'side-effects', as the originator of the externality imposes costs or benefits on otherswho are not responsible for initiating the effect.d) Externalities may be unidirectional or reciprocal and also can be positive or negative.3. Public Goods:a) A public good (also referred to as collective consumption good or social good) is defined asone which all enjoy in common in the sense that each individual’s consumption of such a goodleads to no subtraction from any other individuals’ consumption of that good.b) Public good is non-rival in consumption. They are non-excludable and are characterized byindivisibility.4. Incomplete Information:In many cases consumers are unable to quickly / cheaply find sufficient information on the bestprices as well as quality for different products. Sometimes they misunderstand the true costs orbenefits of a product or uncertain about the true costs and benefits.Information failure is widespread in numerous market exchanges. When this happensmisallocation of scarce resources takes place and equilibrium price and quantity is notestablished through price mechanism. This results in market failure.SIMILAR QUESTIONS:1. Define the concept of market failure. Describe the different sources of market failure.2. Describe the different sources of market failure.3. Why do economists use the word external to describe third-party effects that are harmfulor beneficial?A. Refer 2nd pointCopyrights ReservedTo MASTER MINDS, GunturCA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.2

Ph: 98851 25025/26www.mastermindsindia.comQ.No.3. Define Externality. What are the features of Externalities? (B)Introduction: Refer 2nd point in 2nd questionFeatures of an Externality:i)The unique feature of an externality is that, it occurs only outside the price mechanism. (i.e. it isinitiated and experienced through outside the market but not through the operation of the pricesystem).ii) The cost (benefit) of externality is not borne (paid) by the parties i.e. It will not be compensated.iii) Externalities may be unidirectional or reciprocal.For example, a workshop is creating earsplitting noise. But it imposes an externality on a bakerwho produces smoke and disturbs the workers in the workshop and then this is a case ofreciprocal externality.For example, if an accountant who is disturbed by loud music but has not imposed anyexternality on the singers, then the externality is unidirectionaliv) Externalities can be positive or negative. (Positive production externalities, Positive consumptionexternalities, Negative production externalities and Negative consumption externalities).Q.No.4. Support the sentence “Externalities can be positive or negative” with suitableexamples. (A)Externalities can be positive or negative:i)Positive externalities occur when the action of one party confers benefits on another party.ii) Negative externalities occur when the action of one party imposes costs on another party.1. Negative Production Externalities(NPEs):A negative externality initiated in production which imposes an external cost on others may bereceived by another in consumption or in production.Example:An Aluminum factory discharges its untreated waste water into a nearby river.Consequences: It pollutes the water causing health hazards for people who use the water for drinking andbathing. It is a negative production externality received in consumption. Pollution of river also affects fish output as there will be less catch for fishermen due to loss offish resources. It is a negative production externality received in production.Conclusion: The firm do not account for the external costs either on consumers of river water oron fishermen when making its production decision.Also, there is no market where the external costs can reflect the price of aluminum.CA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.3

MASTER MINDSNo.1 for CA/CWA & MEC/CEC2. Positive production externalities (PPEs):A positive production externality initiated in production that confers external benefits on othersmay be received in production or in consumption.Compared to NPEs the PPEs are less common.Example:A beekeeper locates his beehives in an orange growing area.Consequences: It enhances the chances of greater production of oranges through increased pollination. It is apositive production externality received in production. An individual raised an attractive garden and the persons walking by enjoy the garden. It is apositive production externality received in consumption.Conclusion:These external effects will not be taken into account when the production decisions were made.3. Negative Consumption Externalities (NPEs):The Negative consumption externalities are initiated in consumption which produce external costson others may be received in consumption or in production.NPEs are experienced by us in our day to day life.Examples of Negative consumption externalities affecting consumption:i) Smoking cigarettes in public place causes passive smoking by others.ii) Playing the radio loudly obstructs one from enjoying a concert.Examples of Negative consumption externalities affecting production:i) The act of undisciplined students talking and creating disturbance in a class preventingteachers from making effective instructionii) The excessive consumption of alcohol causing impairment in efficiency for work and production4. Positive Consumption Externalities (PCEs)A positive consumption externality initiated in consumption that confers external benefits onothers may be received in consumption or in production.Examples:i)Immunization against contagious diseases by some persons prevents the others from gettinginfected (social benefit). It is a positive consumption externality received in consumption.ii) Consumption of services of a health club by the employees of a firm would result in increasedefficiency and productivity (external benefit). It is a positive consumption externality receivedin production.SIMILAR QUESTIONS:1. Distinguish between positive and negative externalities.2. What do you understand by externalities in consumption?A. Refer 3rd and 4th points3. Explain the different types of externalities? Illustrate how externalities lead to welfare lossof markets.Copyrights ReservedTo MASTER MINDS, GunturCA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.4

Ph: 98851 25025/26www.mastermindsindia.comQ.No.5. Explain Social cost. How the externalities do create a divergence between private costand social cost of production? (B)The presence of externalities creates a divergence between private cost and social cost ofproduction.Social Cost Private Cost External Cost1. Private cost:a) It is the cost faced by the producer or consumer directly involved in a transaction.b) Private cost of producer includes direct cost of labour, materials, energy and other indirectoverheads. It does not include externalities.2. External cost: External cost is the cost of damage from externalities and is borne by third partiesnot directly involved in the transaction.3. Social costs: It refers to the total costs to the society on account of a production or consumptionactivity. Social costs are private costs borne by individuals directly involved in a transactiontogether with the external costs borne by third parties not directly involved in the transaction.a) When negative production externalities exist, social costs exceed private cost. If producers donot take into account the externalities, there will be over-production and market failure.b) Negative consumption externalities lead to a situation where the social benefit of consumptionis less than the private benefit.SIMILAR QUESTIONS:1. How can social costs be differentiated from private cost?2. Discuss the importance of the distinction between private costs and social costs.Q.No.6. Graphically explain the problem related as a relationship between negativeexternalities and loss of social welfare (A)The problem of negative externalities though serious, does not usually raise much because thesociety does not know exactly who are the producers of harmful externalities.Even if the society knows it, the cause-effect linkages are so unclear that the negative externalitycannot be conclusively traced to its producer.The problem can be explained with the help of the figure below:Negative Externalities and Loss of Social welfarea) Marginal social cost (MSC) represents the full or true cost to the society of producinganother unit of a good. It includes marginal private cost (MPC) and marginal external cost (MSC).MSC MPC MECCA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.5

No.1 for CA/CWA & MEC/CECMASTER MINDSb) The equilibrium level of output that would be produced by a free market is Q1 at which marginalprivate benefit (MPB) is equal to marginal private cost (MPC).c) Assuming that there are no externalities arising from consumption, we can see that marginalsocial cost (Q1S) is higher than marginal private cost (Q1E).d) Social efficiency occurs at Q2 level of output where MSC is equal to MSB.e) Output Q1 is socially inefficient because at Q1, the MSC is greater than the MSB and representsover production.f) The shaded triangle represents the area of dead weight welfare loss. It indicates the area ofoverconsumption.Conclusion: When there is negative externality, a competitive market will produce too much outputrelative to the social optimum. This is a clear case of market failure where prices fail to provide thecorrect signals.SIMILAR QUESTIONS:1. Explain the role of externalities in welfare loss of markets?2. Explain using diagram and examples, the concepts of negative externalities of productionand consumption, and the welfare loss associated with the production or consumption ofa good or service.Q.No.7. Define Public goods. What are the characteristics of public goods? (A)Collective Consumption Good or Public Good:Introduced by: Paul A. SamuelsonPublication: ‘The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure’ (1954)Recognition: He is the first economist to develop the theory of public goods.Definition: A public good is defined as one which all enjoy in common in the sense that eachindividual’s consumption of such a good leads to no subtraction from any other individuals’consumption of that good.A few examples of public goods are: national defence, highways, public education, scientificresearch which benefits everyone, law enforcement, lighthouses, fire protection, disease preventionand public sanitation.Characteristics of Public Goods:a) Public goods yield utility to people and are products (goods or services) whose consumption isessentially collective in nature.b) No direct payment by the consumer is involved in the case of pure public goods.c) Public good is non-rival in consumption. It means that consumption of a public good by oneindividual does not reduce the quality or quantity available for all other individuals. (EX: If youwalk in street light, other persons too can walk without any reduced benefit from the street light.)d) Public goods are non-excludable. Consumers cannot be excluded from consumption benefits. Ifthe good is provided, one individual cannot deny other individuals’ consumption.e) Public goods are characterized by indivisibility. The total amount of the public good consumed isthe same for each individual. For example, a lighthouse, a highway, an airport, defence, etc.cannot be consumed in separate units.f) Public goods are more vulnerable to issues such as externalities, inadequate property rights andfree rider problems.g) Once a public good is provided, the additional resource cost of another person consuming thegoods is ‘zero’.CA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.6

Ph: 98851 25025/26www.mastermindsindia.comh) Public goods are generally divided into two categories namely, public consumption goods andpublic factors of production.i)A unique feature of public goods is that they do not conform to the settings of market exchange.SIMILAR QUESTIONS:1. Public goods do not use up extra resources as additional people consume them. Why?Q.No.8. Briefly explain the classification of Public Goods based on rivalry (or) non-rivalry,excludable (or) non-excludable. (B)Classification of Public GoodsOne approach to classify goods is to concentrate on the non-rival and non-excludable characteristicsof public goods.Classification ofPublic goodsExcludableand Rivalrous(Category A)Pure PrivateGoodsFood, Clothing,Cars etc.,Non Excludableand Rivalrous(Category B)Excludable andNon Rivalrous(Category C)Non Excludableand NonRivalrous(Category D)ConsumptionGoodsConsumptionGoodsPure PublicGoodsCommon resourcessuch as fish stocks,forest resources,coal etc.,Club goods,cinemas, Privateparks, satellitetelevision (DTH)etc.,NationalDefenceGoods in category A are rivalrous in consumption and are excludable. These are also known aspure private goods.Consumption goods in category B are rival but not excludable. Common resources such as publicparks, public roads in a city etc. fall under this category.For example, Bees from the hives of different bee keepers collect nectar from the nearby orangegarden. The blossom is rival as the nectar collected for one hive is unavailable to another.The situation is non-excludable as no one can stop the use of nectar by particular honey bee.Goods in category C are non-rival in consumption but are excludable. For example admission to acinema, swimming pool, music concert etc. has potential for exclusion, but if there is no congestion,each individual admitted may consume the services without subtracting from the benefit of others.Goods in category D which are characterized by both non-excludability and non-rivalry propertiesare called pure public goods. The benefit that an individual gets from a pure public good does notdepend on the number of users.Examples: The clarity of your radio reception is generally independent of the number of other listeners. Knowledge (discovery) of one person does not prevent others from applying the same knowledge.Q.No.9. Describe Pure and Impure Public Goods. (B)1. Pure public good: A pure public good is non -rival as well as non- excludable (CATEGORY D).Criticisms on Pure public good: These goods are not in fact observable in the real world.CA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.7

No.1 for CA/CWA & MEC/CECMASTER MINDS These goods are not easy to come across.Examplesi)If the government provides law and order, the use of law courts by some individuals subtractsthe consumption of others and if they need they have to wait.ii) In case of defence if armies are mostly deployed in the northern borders, it may not result inthe same amount of protection to people in the south.2. Impure public good: The hybrid goods that possess some features of both public and privategoods are called impure public goods and are partially rivalrous or congestible.a) Because of the possibility of congestion, the benefit that an individual gets from an impurepublic good depends on the number of users.For example, open- access Wi-Fi networks become crowded when more people access it.b) Consumption of these goods by one person reduces (but does not eliminate), the benefits thatother people receive from the same good.For example cable television is non-rivalrous i.e. the use of cable TV by others will not reduceyour enjoyment of it.c) Impure public goods differ from pure public goods that they are often excludable.For example cable television is excludable since the cable TV service providers can refuseconnection if you do not pay for set top box and recharge it regularly.d) The possibility of exclusion from the use of an impure public good has two implications.i) Since free riding can be eliminated, the impure public good may be provided either by themarket or by the government at a price or fee. If the consumption of a good can beexcluded, then, the market would provide a price mechanism for it.ii) The provider of an impure public good may be able to control the degree of congestioneither by regulating the number of people who may use it , or the frequency with which itmay be used or both.e)Impure public goods are classified into two broad classes namely Club goods (Ex: swimmingpools, fitness centres etc.) and Variable use public goods (such as roads, bridges etc.)SIMILAR QUESTIONS:1. Identify a pure public good using the criteria for identification.A. Refer point 1Q.No.10. What are Quasi-Public goods (Mixed Goods)? Explain the features of Quasi-PublicGoods. (B)Quasi-public goods: They possess nearly all of the qualities of the private goods and some of thebenefits of public good.Eg.: Education, health services etc.The quasi-public goods or services, also called a near public good.Features of quasi public goods:1. It is easy to keep people away from them by charging a price or fee. But this is undesirablebecause the society would be better off if more people consume them.2. The combination of virtually infinite benefits and the ability to charge a price results in some quasipublic goods being sold through markets and others are being provided by government. Butpeople argue that these should not be left to the market alone.3. Markets for the quasi-public goods are considered to be incomplete markets and their lack ofprovision by free markets would be considered as inefficiency and market failure.SIMILAR QUESTION:1. Explain the term quasi-public goods.CA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.8

Ph: 98851 25025/26www.mastermindsindia.comQ.No.11. Define private good. Explain its characteristics. (A)Private good: Private goods refer to those goods that yield utility to people. Anyone who wants toconsume them must purchase them.Characteristics of Private Goods:a) Owners of private goods can exercise private property rights and can prevent others from usingthe good or consuming their benefits.b) Consumption of private goods is ‘rivalrous’ (i.e. the purchase and consumption of aprivate good by one individual prevents another individual from consuming it).c) Simultaneous consumption of a rivalrous good by more than one person is impossible.d) Private goods are ‘excludable’ i.e. it is possible to exclude or prevent consumers who have notpaid for them from consuming them or having access to them.e) Private goods do not have the free rider problem. This means that the private goods will beavailable to only those persons who are willing to pay for it.f) The market demand curve for a private good is obtained by horizontal summation of individualdemand curvesg) All private goods and services can be rejected by the consumers if their needs, preferences orbudgets change.h) Additional resource costs are involved for producing and supplying additional quantities of privategoodsi)Consumers will get different amounts of private goods based on their desires and ability andwillingness to pay.j)Whenever there is inequality in income distribution in an economy, issues of fairness and justicetend to arise with respect to private goods.k) Normally, the market will efficiently allocate resources for the production of private goods.l)Most of the goods produced and consumed in an economy are private goods. Examples are: fooditems, clothing, movie ticket, television, cars, houses etc.SIMILAR QUESTIONS:1. Explain, with the aid of examples, the main characteristics of private goods.2. Describe why markets have incentives to produce private goods?Q.No.12. Define Common Access Resources. What is the effect of absence of pricemechanism on environmental sustainability? (A)1. Common Access Resources: Common access resources or common pool resources are aspecial class of impure public goods which are rival and non-excludable (Category B). They areavailable for free of charge. Hence price mechanism is absent.Eg.: Fisheries, Common pastures, Rivers, Sea, Backwaters, Biodiversity etc.atmosphere is the best example.The earth’sNoteNon-excludable: As people cannot be excluded from using themRival: Consumption by some lessens the benefits available for others2. Effect of absence of price mechanism:a) There is no price for common resources. So, the producers and consumers do not pay forCA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.9

No.1 for CA/CWA & MEC/CECMASTER MINDSthese resources and therefore, they overuse them and cause their depletion and degradation.b) Emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases have led to the depletion of theozone layer endangering environmental sustainability.c) This creates threat to the sustainability of these resources and, therefore, the availability ofcommon access resources for future generations.Conclusion:The ‘tragedy of the commons’ (i.e. the overuse of rival and non-excludable leads to the disadvantageof the entire world) is a burning problem. Although nations are aware of the fact that reduced globalwarming would benefit everyone, they have an incentive to free ride, with the result that nothingpositive is likely to be done to correct the problem. .SIMILAR QUESTIONS:1. Describe common access resources using examples.2. Define common resources. Why are they overused?3. Explain why environmental pollution is regarded as a source of market failure.A. Refer point 24. Describe the term ‘Tragedy of Commons’.A. Refer the conclusion.Q.No.13. Define Global Public Goods. Provide the classification of global public goodsaccording to WHO and World Bank. (B)Global Public Goods: These goods have widespread impact on different countries andregions, population groups and generations. These are goods whose impacts are indivisibly spreadthroughout the entire globe.Classification of global public goods: By WHOi)Final public goods are ‘outcomes’, (e.g. the eradication of polio)ii) Intermediate public goods, which contribute to the provision of final public goods. (e.g. InternationalHealth Regulations aimed at stopping the cross-border movement of communicable diseasesand thus reducing cross-border health risks).Classification of global public goods: By World Banki)The environmental commons (including the prevention of climate change and biodiversity),ii) Communicable diseases (including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, and avian influenza),iii) International trade,iv) International financial architecture, andv) Global knowledge for development.Conclusion: The distinctive characteristic of global public goods is that there is no mechanism (eithermarket or government) to ensure an efficient outcome.Q.No.14. Explain the terms related to the Free Rider Problem. What will be the impact of freeriding on public goods? (A)The Free Rider Problem: The incentive to let other people pay for a good or service, the benefits ofwhich are enjoyed by an individual is known as the free rider problem.Free rider: A free rider is a consumer or producer who does not pay for a nonexclusive good in theexpectation that others will pay.CA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.10

Ph: 98851 25025/26www.mastermindsindia.comFree riding: Free riding means ‘benefiting from the actions of others without paying’.Eg.: When students are required to do a group project, some group members tend to escape the workand make others do the entire work. Those who escape assignment ‘free ride’ on the efforts of othersApplicability of free riding on public goods:a) Consumers can take advantage of public goods without contributing sufficiently to their production.b) As public goods are non-excludable, the people will tend to act in their own self-interest and thisleads to the problem of free riding.c) As individuals cannot be excluded from the benefit of a public good, they will not express to buy aparticular quantity at a price (because they can consume it without paying for it).d) If every individual plays the same strategy of free riding, the strategy will fail because nobody iswilling to pay and therefore, nothing will be provided by the market. Then, a free ride for any onebecomes impossible.e) On account of the free rider problem, there is no meaningful demand curve for public goods.f) If individuals make no offers to pay for public goods, then the profit maximizing firms will notproduce them.g) In fact, the public goods are valuable for people. If there is no free rider problem, people wouldbe willing to pay for them and they will be produced by the market. As such, if the free-riderproblem cannot be solved, the following two outcomes are possible:i)No public good will be provided in private marketsii) Private markets will seriously under produce public goods even though these goods providevaluable service to the society.SIMILAR QUESTIONS:1. Explain the free rider problem. Give examples.2. Describe the free rider problem associated with public goods.3. Describe the free rider problem associated with public goods. What would be theoutcome? Give examples.Q.No.15. What are the reasons for Incomplete Information? How can it affects the marketfailure? (B)Complete information is an important element of competitive market. Perfect information implies thatboth buyers and sellers have complete information about anything that may influence their decisionmaking. However, this assumption is not fully satisfied in real marketsReasons for incomplete informationa) The nature of products and services tends to be highly complex e.g. Cardiac surgery, financialproducts (such as pension products, mutual funds etc).b) In many cases consumers are unable to quickly / cheaply find sufficient information on the bestprices as well as quality for different products.c) Sometimes consumers may misunderstand or uncertain about the true costs or benefits of a product.d) People are ignorant or not aware of many matters in the market.e) The consumers have inaccurate or incomplete data and consequently make potentially ‘wrong’choices / decisions.Information failure is widespread in numerous market exchanges. When this happens misallocation ofscarce resources takes place and equilibrium price and quantity is not established through pricemechanism. This results in market failure.SIMILAR QUESTION:1. Appraise the role of incomplete information in generating market failure.CA Inter Economics for Finance Market Failure 4.11

No.1 for CA/CWA & MEC/CECMASTER MINDSQ.No.16. Define Adverse Selection. Provide any two examples. (B)Adverse selection: It is a situation in which asymmetric information about low quality eliminateshigh-quality goods from a market.Eg.1: Health insuranceMostly the people with unhealthy life styles and with underlying health issues purchase health insuranceto use it. Being aware of this the insurance company raises the average price of insurance cover. Thishigh price throws healthy consumers out of the market as healthy people will be unwilling to pay such highp

a) The two aspects of market failures are demand-side market failures and supply side market failures. b) Demand-side market failures: They occur when the demand curves do not take into account the full willingness of consumers to pay for a product. Eg.: None of us will be willing to pay to view a wayside fountain because we can view it without .

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