Watersheds 4

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Watersheds4“The study of rivers is not a matter of rivers, but of the human heart.”— Tanaka ShozoAll land on earth is a watershed. Humansand their activities play an important andessential role in watersheds, yet fewpeople understand them. Still fewer know how awatershed works or can describe the boundariesof the ones in which they live.A watershed is often called a drainage basin.It is the land area drained by a network of channels, called tributaries, that increase in size asthe amount of water, sediment, and dissolvedmaterials they must carry increases. Each watershed is an interconnected land-water system thatconveys water to its outlet—a larger stream, aninland lake, a wetland, an estuary, or the ocean.A watershed may be the drainage area surrounding a lake that has no surface outlet, such asMalheur and Harney Lakes in southeast Oregonor a river basin as large as that of the ColumbiaRiver. A puddle even has its own watershed.Within a large watershed tributaries formsmaller watersheds called sub-basins. Eachtributary contributes to overall streamflow for theentire basin. Oregon has 20 major river basins(see Figure 4.)All watersheds have an aquatic (or water)area, a riparian area, and an upland area. Aquaticareas include standing waters like ponds, lakes,wetlands, bogs and running surface waters suchas streams and rivers. The corridor of vegetationnext to and influencing the aquatic area is calledthe riparian area.The point where two watersheds meet iscalled a divide. Connecting the divide with thevalley or lowland areas below are the hill slopesor uplands. Events in the uplands ultimatelyFigure 4. Oregon River llaSa HoodndyJohn uthCoastChetcoUmpquaRogueGoose andSummerLakesKlamathOregon Department of Fish & ndritic r streamsforagegradientintermittentleachingparallel drainageperennialplant associationsradial drainageresidual soilsriparian areastreamflow hydrographsub-basinssublimationtransported soilstrellis drainagetributariesuplandswater equivalentwatershedWatersheds 33

affect the capture of water on the surface ofthe land, storage and movement of waterbelow the surface, and release of water toriparian and aquatic areas.Each stream in a watershed is an everchanging open-water system. It carves throughvalleys, collects water and sediments, and conveys the surface runoff generated by rainfall,snowmelt, or groundwater discharge to the estuaries and oceans. The shape and pattern of astream is a result of the land it is cutting and thesediment it must carry.Each of us has a “watershed address,” whichdescribes our basic relationship with a watershed. One part of our address is our location. Weall live in topographic watersheds—areas drainedby a common stream. When a raindrop falls onthe roof of our house, where is it going? Whatcreeks or rivers will carry it toward the sea?Some people also live in engineered watersheds, which may not follow topographic lines.When we turn on the faucet in the kitchen sink,what watershed did that water come from? Whenthe water runs down the drain, what watershed isit going to? For example, while rainwater inmuch of the Portland Metro area flows into theWillamette River, much of Portland’s domesticwater supply is piped from the nearby Bull RunWatershed, a watershed that flows toward theColumbia River. In this way, one watershed isartificially connected to several other watershedsat once. The watershed of surface flow, thewatershed where domestic water originates, andthe watershed where wastewater goes are allconnected. This means Portland residents live inone watershed and drink water from another,while their wastewater may affect their “homewatershed” and others.Physical features of awatershedRain, snow, wind, ice, and temperature variationsare all agents of erosion in a watershed. Theerosional effects of surface water create streamchannels. As streams carve their way through awatershed, they are responsible for most of the“topographic identity” of a watershed.34 The Stream Scene: Watersheds, Wildlife and ;Ridge ainA watershed is almost like a domicile, a minibiosphere, with halls of hills and mountains, a floorof river or lake, and a roof of rain clouds. Adaptedfrom Co-Evolution Quarterly, Winter 1976/77.AreaThe area of a watershed affects the amount ofwater that flows from the river or stream thatdrains it. Generally, with similar climates largewatersheds receive more precipitation than smallones. Greater precipitation and runoff may occuron a smaller watershed in a moist climate than ona large watershed in an arid climate.Shape and slopeShape and slope of a watershed and its drainagepattern influence surface runoff and seepage instreams draining the watershed. The steeper theslope, the greater the possibility for rapid runoffand erosion. Plant cover is more difficult toestablish and infiltration of surface water isreduced on steep slopes.OrientationOrientation of a watershed in relation to thedirection that storms move across it also affectsrunoff and peak flows. A rainstorm moving up awatershed from the mouth releases water in sucha way that runoff from the lower section haspassed its peak before runoff from the highersections has arrived. A storm starting at the topOregon Department of Fish & Wildlife

and moving down a watershed can reverse theprocess.Orientation of a watershed relative to sunposition affects temperature, evaporation, andtranspiration. Soil moisture is more rapidly lostby evaporation and transpiration on steep slopesfacing the sun. Watersheds sloping away fromthe sun are cooler, and evaporation and transpiration are less. Slopes exposed to the sun usuallysupport different plants than those facing awayfrom the sun. Orientation to prevailing winds hassimilar effects.Figure 5. Stream Orders111213231133Viewed from above, the tributaries of each riversystem create a distinct pattern. Geology, topography, and climate are responsible for this pattern. Regions with parallel valleys formed by thefolding of the earth’s surface have a paralleldrainage pattern. Where the geology is sedimentary rock, fault lines may create a drainage pattern where streams flow parallel to each otherand tributaries join at nearly right angles in atrellis drainage pattern.In the Pacific Northwest two of the mostcommon patterns are radial drainage and dendritic (treelike) drainage. When streams drain acentral high point, such as a mountain top, theycreate a pattern similar to the spokes on a wheelradiating out from the central hub. This is radialdrainage.The branching tributaries of a river may alsocreate a pattern similar to the branches of a tree.This is dendritic drainage. Both types may occurwithin the same watershed. For example, theradial pattern of streams that drain Mount Hoodare all within the Columbia Basin, but the drainDendritic DrainageOregon Department of Fish & Wildlife1452Drainage patterns2341Radial Drainage21125age pattern of the individual sub-basins formedby these streams have a dendritic pattern.Stream ordersIn most cases, a watershed system is almostentirely hillsides, called uplands. Only about onepercent of a watershed is stream channels. Thesmallest channels in a watershed have no tributaries and are called first-order streams. Whentwo first-order streams join, they form a secondorder stream. When two second-order channelsjoin, a third-order stream is formed, and so on(Figure 5). First- and second-order channels areoften small, steep, or intermittent. Orders six orgreater are larger rivers.Channels change by erosion and deposition.Natural channels of rivers increase in size downstream as tributaries enter and add to the flow.Parallel DrainageTrellis DrainageWatersheds 35

A channel is neither straight nor uniform, yet itsaverage size changes in a regular and progressivefashion. In upstream reaches, the channel tendsto be steeper. Gradient decreases downstream aswidth and depth increase. The size of sedimentstends to decrease, often from boulders in the hillyor mountainous upstream portions, to cobbles orgravels in middle reaches. More sand or silt arefound downstream. In some cases, large floodscause new channels to form, leaving once-productive streams dry and barren.is the main contributor to streamflow during drysummer and fall months. Without baseflow,many streams would dry up.Pumping water from an aquifer for industrial,irrigation, or domestic use reduces the aquifer’svolume. Unless withdrawals are modified orrecharge increased, the aquifer will eventually bedepleted. A drained aquifer can collapse from thesettling of the overlying lands.Collapsed underground aquifers no longerhave as much capacity to accept and hold water.Recharge is difficult, volume is less, and yieldsStreamflow typesBesides the ordering system previously described, streams may be classified by how muchof the year they have flowing water. Perennial flow indicates a nearly yearround flow (90 percent or more) in a welldefined channel. Most higher orderstreams are perennial. Intermittent flow generally occurs onlyduring the wet season (50 percent of thetime or less). Ephemeral flow generally occurs duringand shortly after extreme precipitation orsnowmelt conditions. Ephemeral channelsare not well defined and are usually headwater or low order (1-2) streams.Factors affecting watershedsClimateLand and water are linked directly by the watercycle. Solar energy drives this and other cycles inthe watershed. Climate—the type of weather aregion has over a long period—is the source ofwater. Water comes to the watershed in seasonalcycles, principally as rain or snow. In someareas, condensation and fog-drip contributewater. The seasonal pattern of precipitation andtemperature variation control streamflow andwater production.Some precipitation infiltrates the soil andpercolates through porous rock into groundwaterstorage, which recharges areas called aquifers.Natural groundwater discharge, called baseflow,36 The Stream Scene: Watersheds, Wildlife and PeopleLand and water are linkeddirectly by the water cycle.are considerably reduced. Springs once fed fromthe water table also dry up.Climate affects water loss from a watershedas well as provides water. In hot, dry, or windyweather, evaporation loss from bare soil andfrom water surfaces is high.The same climatic influences that increaseevaporation also increase transpiration fromplants. Transpiration draws on soil moisture froma greater depth than evaporation because plantroots may reach into an available moisture supply. Transpiration is greatest during the growingseason and least during cold weather when mostplants are relatively dormant.Wind also causes erosion, controls the accumulation of snow in sheltered places, and may bea significant factor in snowpack melting. Winderosion can occur wherever wind is strong andOregon Department of Fish & Wildlife

constant, or where soil is unprotected by sufficient plant cover.Soils and geologySoil, a thin layer of the earth’s crust, could becalled the “skin” of a watershed. It is composedof mineral particles of all sizes and varyingamounts of organic materials. It is formed fromthe breakdown of parent rocks into fine mineralparticles. This occurs by: freezing and thawing in winter, heating expansion and cooling contractionin summer, wind and water erosion, the grinding action of ice, and action of lichens and other plants.Soils are of two types. Residual soils arethose developed in place from underlying rockformations and surface plant cover. Transportedsoils include those transported by gravity, windor water.Climate, particularly precipitation and temperature, strongly affects soil formation. Rainfallcauses leaching—movement of dissolved particles through soil by water. Temperature affectsboth mechanical breakdown of rocks and breakdown of organic material. Soil bacteria, insects,and burrowing animals also play a part in thebreakdown and mixing of soil components.Soil often determines which plants grow in awatershed, which in turn establish a protectivevegetative cover. Plants also modify and developsoil. Plant roots create soil spaces and extractwater and minerals in solution from their roots.Plant litter adds organic matter to soil. It alsoslows surface runoff and protects the soil surfacefrom rainfall’s beating and puddling effects. Soildepths and moisture-holding capacities are usually less on steep slopes, and plant growth ratesare often slower.Forage, timber, and water are all renewableresources. Water is renewed by cycles of climate.Forage and timber are renewed by growth inseasonal cycles. The availability of these watershed resources is dependent upon soil. Soil is,except over long periods, a nonrenewableOregon Department of Fish & Wildliferesource. It may take more than a century toproduce a centimeter of soil and thousands ofyears to produce enough soil to support a highyield, high-quality forest, range, or agriculturalcrop. Soil is the basic watershed resource. Careful management and protection is necessary topreserve its function and productivity.VegetationThe variety of plant species and their growth anddistribution patterns within a watershed are theresult of differences in soil type, light, temperature, moisture, nutrient availability, and humanactivity. For example, temperatures on the northand south slopes of the same hill may vary considerably. Different light intensities may accountfor the temperature variation on either side of thehill. Temperature differences in turn affect themoisture levels on each of the slopes. Generallysouth-facing slopes are warmer and drier thannorth-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere.The plant species that are present directlyaffect the ability of a watershed to capture, store,and release water within that particular habitat.Branches of large conifers effectively interceptsnow and rain. Some of the moisture in theprecipitation will evaporate before it has achance to reach the ground but the rest is slowedPlants directly affect the abilityof a watershed to capture, store,and release water.in its descent, lessening the impact to the soil’ssurface. Sagebrush and other arid land shrubs, onthe other hand, are not as effective in slowingsnow or rain. Yet in areas with less precipitation,this adaptation provides the greatest opportunityfor moisture to infiltrate. Watersheds coveredwith dense grass cover help the soil capturewater much more effectively than watershedswith sparse vegetation.Watersheds 37

Groups of plants that have evolved togetherover time are called plant associations (orcommunities). Plant associations share specificadaptations to certain watershed conditions—climate, soil type, light and temperature requirements, moisture, and nutrient availability asdescribed above. Knowing the basic plant associations found in a particular watershed can tellyou a lot about the health of that watershed.Fish and wildlifeEach watershed has a diverse mix of wildlifespecies—mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians,and invertebrates. Plant communities influencewhich species are found in a particular watershed. Plants, in some form or another, meet thebasic habitat needs of food, water, shelter, orspace for most all forms of wildlife. And, allwildlife species, large or small, become part ofthe interrelationships found within a watershed.Some wildlife never leave their watershedresidence while others move among severaladjoining watersheds or even migrate hundredsor thousands of miles to live in a completelydifferent watershed during different times of theyear. Wildlife populations within a watershedmay vary seasonally and annually. Migration,predation, wildlife management (like huntingseasons), or watershed management decisions(development, timber harvest, mining, recreation,agriculture) can all affect wildlife populations.Wildlife perform a variety of functionswithin a watershed. Less commonly known butvery important contributions include burrowingactivities of animals like worms and mice. Theirburrows allow moisture to penetrate deep into thesoil, aiding the water storage capabilities of thewatershed. Small rodents also collect and storenuts and seeds, many of which sprout and growto provide more food and ground cover. Rodentsare also an important part of many watershedfood chains. Birds also help transport seeds.Dams built by beavers help increase water storage in the soil and their activities are often responsible for channel changes within a streamsystem.Limited exclusively to the aquatic habitatsfound within a watershed, fish occupy a unique38 The Stream Scene: Watersheds, Wildlife and Peopleniche. Fish are part of complex aquatic foodchains and, along with the aquatic organisms onwhich they feed, are indicators of water quality.A number of factors within the watershedcontrol a stream’s ability to produce fish food.When producers such as algae and diatoms areplentiful, the aquatic insects that feed upon themalso thrive. They in turn are food for otherPlants, in some form oranother, meet the basichabitat needs of food, water,shelter, or space for most allforms of wildlife.aquatic invertebrates and fish. Overhangingstreamside vegetation also contributes insects tothe aquatic dinner plate.Studies in recent years show considerableevidence that stream systems with migratingpopulations of salmon and trout are highly dependent on the nutrients provided by the decaying carcasses that remain after spawning.Fish populations vary with the quantity andthe quality of available water within a watershed.Streams that flow cold and clean throughout theyear generally provide the conditions that salmonand trout need to be healthy and productive.Human management activities can affect thequantity and quality of water in streams.Management objectives in awatershedA key watershed management objective is tomaintain effective vegetative cover and soilcharacteristics that sustain high quality watersupplies. Meeting this objective enhances theusefulness and productivity of the land for otherpurposes. If the soil is protected and maintainedin good condition, then other renewableOregon Department of Fish & Wildlife

resources that depend on this most basic form ofproductivity can be supported.Timber, forage, minerals, food, and wildliferepresent important watershed managementconsiderations. Problems arise when development and use of these resources conflict with theprimary objectives of maintaining and protectinghigh quality water supplies and promoting watershed integrity.Land ownership is the principal institutionalcontrol of a watershed. A private individual orpublic management agency may be free to applywhatever measures they believe necessary ordesirable on their own land. They may regulateAll watershed users shouldknow that private actionshave public consequences onwater quality and quantity.Legislation and government edicts alsoprovide controls that can aid water resourcemanagement. These laws may include: land use planning, zoning, permitted and prohibited land uses ortypes of development, restrictions on water use, limitations on water development, pollution control, or fill and removal restrictions.All watershed users should know that privateactions have public consequences on waterquality and quantity.In Oregon, and the Pacific Northwest, watershed councils are a growing voice in guiding themanagement of local watersheds. These councilsare voluntary local advisory groups formedaround interest in a particular watershed. Watershed councils use consensus-based decisionmaking (depending on the support of all councilmembers rather than a majority) to foster coordination and cooperation in managing their localwatershed. As advisory groups their determinations do not have the force of law, but informmanagement agencies about the concerns andwishes of those most closely affected by watershed management decisions. In many cases thesecouncils also plan and implement projects foraccess and prevent use and development ofassociated resources.Many watersheds are in public or state ownership. Unless protected by specific legislation oragreement, most are used and developed to takeadvantage of all resources available for thegeneral public benefit. It is in these multiple-usewatersheds thatmanagement mayface the most seriousconflicts and challenges. Protectingthe water resourcesof some of thesewatersheds mayrequire limiting andbalancing development to provide thegreatest possiblebenefits with theleast significantdisruption of theAdapted from original artwork by Sandra Noel, Adopting A Stream A Northwest Handbook,water resource.Adopt-A-Stream Foundation, 1988.Oregon Department of Fish & WildlifeWatersheds 39

watershed protection, improvement, and education.Watershed councils also play an importantrole in the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. The Oregon Plan establishes local networks and partnerships between citizen groups,communities, local governments, state agenciesand others to allow citizens to be proactive andaddress watershed problems. Currently the Oregon Plan has two parts. The Oregon CoastalSalmon Restoration Initiative, often called theOregon Salmon Plan, seeks to develop programsto preserve and restore native coho salmon populations in coastal basins. The Healthy StreamsPartnership is the second component. Its purposeis to create networks and partnerships to improvewater quality throughout the state to meet thefederal Clean Water Act standards.SummaryRivers, upland areas, mountaintops, and floodformed bottomlands with their associated riparian areas are all part of one system. All areintegrated with each other. Hillside shape controls the rate of water flow. All living elements inthe watershed interact with and modify the energy flow through the system. The unique combination of climatic conditions, soil types,topography, vegetative cover, and drainagesystem define the specific character of eachwatershed.Rivers do not stop at state lines or nationalboundaries. The effects of natural and humanprocesses in a watershed are focused at its outlet,wherever it may be, even if a watershed crossesanother state or country’s borders. Each watershed is a part of a larger watershed whose downstream portion is affected by upstreaminfluences.Everyone depends on the resources watersheds provide. As the human population continues to grow, the demand on those resourcesintensifies. Human uses of land and water reAdapted from W.E. Bullard, “Watershed Management Short Course,” Oct. 1975, and used withpermission.40 The Stream Scene: Watersheds, Wildlife and Peoplesources affect the ecological dynamics of afunctioning watershed system, altering naturalhabitats as well as the quantity and quality of itswater supplies. Some changes are improvements.Others are not. It is up to the public at all local,regional, state, and national levels to meet thechallenges of balanced, productive watershedmanagement.Extensions1. “Where Does Water Run?”Aquatic Project WILD, pp. 21.Grades 6-12.2. “Watershed,” Aquatic Project WILD,pp. 132. Grades 4-12.3. “To Dam or Not to Dam,” Aquatic ProjectWILD, pp. 170.4. “Identifying Your Watershed,” WatershedUplands Scene, pp. 17-36. Grades 9-12.5. “Weather and Climate Investigation,” Watershed Uplands Scene, pp. 89-108. Grades 912.6. “Branching Out,” Project WET, pp. 129-132.Grades K-2 and 6-8.7. “A-Maze-ing Water,” Project WET, pp. 219222. Grades 3-8.8. “Color Me a Watershed,” Project WET, pp.223-227. Grades 9-12.9. “Common Water,” Project WET, pp. 232237. Grades K-8.10. “Dilemma Derby,” Project WET, pp. 377381. Grades 6-12.11. “Get the Ground Water Picture,” ProjectWET, pp. 136-143. Grades 6-12.12. “Irrigation Interpretation,” Project WET, pp.254-259. Grades K-8.13. “A Grave Mistake,” Project WET, pp. 311315. Grades 6-12.Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife

14. “The Pucker Effect,” Project WET, pp. 338343. Grades 6-12.f. Collect newspaper clippings on watershedmanagement problems in your area.15. “Surface Water,” The Comprehensive WaterEducation Book, pp. 141-143. Grades 4-6.g. In small groups have students design theirown watershed. Each design should include the location, climate, uses of, abusesto, human impact on, and group perceptions of what a watershed should andshould not be. After preparing visuals todepict their watershed, groups presenttheir design to the class. (Contributed byMary Roberts, 1989)16. “Floods and Erosion,” The ComprehensiveWater Education Book, pp. 144-145. Grades3-6.17. “Lakes,” The Comprehensive Water Education Book, pp. 146-147. Grades 4-6.18. “Watersheds,” The Comprehensive WaterEducation Book, pp. 151-152. Grades K-6.19. To make a simple watershed model crumpleup a large piece of butcher paper and put iton the floor. Imagine that the paper is thesurface of the land, the edges the shoreline,and the floor the sea. Use a permanentmarker to trace the ridgelines separating onewatershed from another. Then trace the riversystems with a various colors of watersoluble markers. Spray water on the watershed. Each river system will have its owncolor, but all colors mix in the estuaries andsea.20. Since everyone lives in one, a first step inunderstanding watersheds is to explore yourown local watershed by outlining its boundaries. Check with your local library fortopographic maps if you cannot determinethe boundaries visually.a. On a map, trace the lines along the highpoints that separate your creek or riverfrom the next.b. Map the land use in your watershed (e.g.,streets, forests, farms, yards, etc.)c. List all possible places rain goes in yourwatershed.d. Go outside the school building. Whathappens to the rain when it falls on theschool roof? Does any of it get to a streamor river? How?e. Are you ever anywhere that is not in awatershed?Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife21. Have students develop an oral history oftheir watershed. Students should first develop a list of questions they want to research about their watershed, then set upinterviews with people in the community.Questions should include past watershedevents, both human-caused and natural, howit looked fifty or more years ago, and more.Students can then summarize their researchinto a written report or verbal presentation orboth.BibliographyBorton, Wendy, et al. Clean Water, Streams, andFish: A Holistic View of Watersheds. Seattle:Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle, n.d.Brown, George W. Forestry and Water Quality,2nd ed. Corvallis: Oregon State UniversityBookstores, Inc., 1985.Carry, Robert. “Watershed Form and Progress—The Elegant Balance.” Co-EvolutionQuarterly (Winter 1976/77): 15-17.Dunne, Thomas, and Luna B. Leopold. Water inEnvironmental Planning. San Francisco:W.H. Freeman & Co., 1978.Environmental Education Project. “Understanding Watersheds.” Clearing: EnvironmentalEducation in the Pacific Northwest (Spring1983): 8-10.Watersheds 41

Ferschweiler, Kate, et al. Watersheds UplandsScene—Catching The Rain. Salem, OR:Governor’s Watershed Enhancement Board,1996.Horton, R.E. “Erosional Development of Streamsand Their Drainage Basins: HydrophysicalApproach to Quantitative Morphology.”Geological Society of America Bulletin 56(1945): 275-370.Kentucky Natural Resources and EnvironmentalProtection Cabinet. A Field Guide toKentucky Rivers and Streams. Water Watch,Division of Water, May 1985.MacKenzie Environmental Education Center.Stream Investigations. Poynette, Wisconsin:Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,n.d.Murdoch, Tom, et al. Streamkeeper’s FieldGuide, Watershed Inventory and StreamMonitoring Methods. Everett, WA: Adopt-AStream Foundation, 1996.Rude, Kathleen. “Watersheds: The World’sBiggest Bathtubs.” Ducks Unlimited(September/October 1985): 62-63.State of Oregon Water Resources Board. “MidCoast Drainage Basin Map.” Salem, OR,1964.State of Oregon Water Resources Board.“Umatilla Drainage Basin Map.” Salem, OR,1962.State of Oregon Water Resources Department.John Day River Basin Report. Salem, OR,1986.Strahler, A.N. “Quantitative Geomorphology ofDrainage Basins and Channel Networks.”Section 4-2 in Handbook of AppliedHydrology, ed. Vente Chow. New York:McGraw Hill, 1964.Toews, D.A.A., and M.J. Brownlee. A Handbookfor Fish Habitat Protection on Forest Landsin British Columbia. Vancouver, B.C.:Government of Canada Department ofFisheries and Oceans, 1981.U.S. Department of Agriculture. Soil and WaterConservation Activities for Scouts. PA-978.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1977.U.S. Department of Agriculture. Water Intake bySoil. PA-925. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office, 1963.U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service.Forests and The Natural Water Cycle. FS-99.Washington, D.C., 1970.U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service.Forests and Water. FS-48. Washington,D.C., 1968.U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service.“Water Investigation.” Investigating YourEnvironment Series. Washington, D.C.,1978.U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service.Your Water Supply and Forests. PA-305.Washington, D.C., 1972.Warshall, Peter. “Streaming Wisdom.” CoEvolution Quarterly (Winter 1976/77: 5-10.Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction.Local Watershed Problem Studies. Vicki K.Vine, Project Director and Charles Brauer,ed., 1981.Young, Carolyn, et al. Oregon EnvironmentalAtlas. Oregon Department of EnvironmentalQuality, 1988.Sullivan, Peter L. What is Happening to OurWater? Washington: National WildlifeFederation, 1979.42 The Stream Scene: Watersheds, Wildlife and PeopleOregon Department of Fish & Wildlife

A sense of place:your ecological addressActivity Education Standards: Note alignmentwith Oregon Academic Content Standardsbeginning on p. 483.ObjectivesStudents will (1) define watershed, (2) determineboundaries

Watershed, a watershed that flows toward the Columbia River. In this way, one watershed is artificially connected to several other watersheds at once. The watershed of surface flow, the watershed where domestic water originates, and the watershed where wastewater goes

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