The Strength Of Chapter Concrete - Iccsafe

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Chapter3The Strength ofConcrete3.13.2The Importance of StrengthStrength Level RequiredKINDS OF STRENGTH3.33.43.53.63.7Compressive StrengthFlexural StrengthTensile StrengthShear, Torsion and Combined StressesRelationship of Test Strength to the StructureMEASUREMENT OF STRENGTH3.83.9Job-Molded SpecimensTesting of Hardened ConcreteFACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH3.103.113.14General CommentsCauses of Strength Variations– Cement– Aggregates– Mix Proportioning– Making and Handling the Concrete– Temperature and CuringApparent Low StrengthAccelerated Strength Development– High-Early-Strength Cement– Admixtures– Retention of Heat of Hydration– High-Temperature Curing– Rapid-Setting CementsSlow Strength Development3.15Selection of Materials and Mix3.16Handling and Quality Control3.123.13HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE (HSC)EARLY MEASUREMENT OF STRENGTHEXPOSURE TO HIGH TEMPERATURE3.17Long-Time Exposure3.18Fire-Damaged Concrete

3The Strength of ConcreteThe quality of concrete is judged largely on the strength of that concrete. Equipment and methods arecontinually being modernized, testing methods are improved, and means of analyzing and interpretingtest data are becoming more sophisticated, yet we still rely on the strength of the same 6 by 12-inch cylinders, made on the job and tested in compression at 28 days age, as we did 90 years ago. Interestingly,the 2008 edition of the ACI 318 Standard (ACI 318-08) now specifically addresses the use of 4 by 8-inchcylinders for evaluation and acceptance of concrete (ACI 318 Section 5.6.2.4). See discussion onstrength specimens in Chapter 13, Section 13.5.3.1. The Importance of StrengthObviously, the strength of any structure, or part of a structure, is important, the degree of importancedepending on the location of the structural element under consideration. The first-floor columns in ahigh-rise building, for example, are more important structurally than a nonbearing wall. Loading is morecritical, and a deficiency in strength can lead to expensive and difficult repairs or, at worst, a spectacularfailure.Strength is usually the basis for acceptance or rejection of the concrete in the structure. The specifications or code designate the strength (nearly always compressive) required of the concrete in the severalparts of the structure. In those cases in which strength specimens fail to reach the required value, further testing of the concrete in place is usually specified. This may involve drilling cores from the structure or testing with certain nondestructive instruments that measure the hardness of the concrete.Some specifications permit a small amount of noncompliance, provided it is not serious, and may penalize the contractor by deducting from the payments due for the faulty concrete. Statistical methods, nowapplied to the evaluation of tests as described in Chapter 26, lend a more realistic approach to the analysis of test results, enabling the engineer to recognize the normal variations in strength and to evaluateindividual tests in their true perspective as they fit into the entire series of tests on the structure.Strength is necessary when computing a proposed mix for concrete, as the contemplated mix proportions are based on the expected strength-making properties of the constituents.3.2. Strength Level RequiredThe code and specifications state the strength that is required in the several parts of the structure. Therequired strength is a design consideration that is determined by the structural engineer and that mustbe attained and verified by properly evaluated test results as specified. Some designers specify concretestrengths of 5000 to 6000 psi, or even higher in certain structural elements. Specified strengths in therange of 15,000 to 20,000 psi have been produced for lower-floor columns in high-rise buildings. Veryhigh strengths, understandably, require a very high level of quality control in their production and testing. Also, for economy in materials costs, the specified strength of very high-strength concrete is basedon 56 or 90-day tests rather than on traditional 28-day test results. To give some idea of the strengthsthat might be required, Table 3.1 is included as information only. Remember that the plans and specifications govern.Note that the International Building Code (IBC) (Section 1905.1.1) and the ACI 318 Standard (Section5.1.1) indicate a minimum specified compressive strength of 2500 psi for structural concrete. Simplystated, no structural concrete can be specified with a strength less than 2500 psi.Other properties of the concrete can be significant for concrete exposed to freeze-thaw conditions, sulfate exposure and chloride exposure (effects of chlorides on the corrosion of the reinforcing steel).Strength, however, remains the basis for judgment of the quality of concrete. Although not necessarily242012 Concrete Manual

Compressive Strength3dependent on strength, other properties to improve concrete durability are related to the strength.Concrete that fails to develop the strength expected of it is probably deficient in other respects as well.TABLE 3.1STRENGTH REQUIREMENTSTYPE OR LOCATION OFCONCRETE CONSTRUCTIONConcrete fillBasement and foundation walls and slabs, walks, patios, steps and stairsDriveways, garage and industrial floor slabsReinforced concrete beams, slabs, columns and wallsPrecast and prestressed concreteHigh-rise buildings (columns)SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVESTRENGTH, PSIBelow ,000–15,000Note: For information purposes only; the plans and specifications give actual strength requirements for any job underconsideration.KINDS OF STRENGTHGenerally, when we speak of the strength of concrete, it is assumed that compressive strength is underconsideration. There are, however, other strengths to consider besides compressive, depending on theloading applied to the concrete. Flexure or bending, tension, shear and torsion are applied under certainconditions and must be resisted by the concrete or by steel reinforcement in the concrete. Simple testsavailable for testing concrete in compression and in flexure are used regularly as control tests duringconstruction. An indirect test for tension is available in the splitting tensile test, which can easily beapplied to cylindrical specimens made on the job. Laboratory procedures can be used for studying shearand torsion applied to concrete; however, such tests are neither practical nor necessary for control, asthe designer can evaluate such loadings in terms of compression, flexure or tension. See Figure 3-1.LOADLOADCOMPRESSIONALOADTENSIONBSHEARCFigure 3-1: Concrete structures are subject to manykinds of loadings besidescompressive. (A) Compression is a squeezingtype of loading. (B) Tension is a pulling apart. (C)Shear is a cutting or sliding. (D) Flexure is a bending. (E) Torsion is atwisting.LOADFLEXUREDTORSIONE3.3. Compressive StrengthBecause concrete is an excellent material for resisting compressive loading, it is used in dams, foundations, columns, arches and tunnel linings where the principal loading is in compression.Strength is usually determined by means of test cylinders made of fresh concrete on the job and testedin compression at various ages. The requirement is a certain strength at an age of 28 days or such earlierage as the concrete is to receive its full service load or maximum stress. Additional tests are frequently2012 Concrete Manual25

3The Strength of Concreteconducted at earlier ages to obtain advance information on the adequacy of strength developmentwhere age-strength relationships have been established for the materials and proportions used.The size and shape of the strength test specimen affect the indicated strength. If we assume that 100percent represents the compressive strength indicated by a standard 6- by 12-inch cylinder with alength/diameter (L/D) ratio of 2.0, then a 6-inch-diameter specimen 9 inches long will indicate 104 percent of the strength of the standard. Correction factors for test specimens with an L/D ratio less than2.0 are given in the test methods for compressive strength (ASTM C 39 and ASTM C 42) for directcomparison with the standard specimen (Table 3.2.) For cylinders of different size but with the same L/D ratio, tests show that the apparent strength decreases as the diameter increases. See Figure 3-2. Seealso Chapter 13, Section 13.5.TABLE 3.2LENGTH DIVIDED BY DIAMETERCORRECTION ple: A 6-inch core 81/4 inches long broke at 4020 psiL/D 8.25/6 1.375For: L/D of 1.375, the factor is 0.945.* Corrected strength is then: 4020 0.945 3800 psi.*An example of interpolation.L/D RATIO FROM TABLEABOVEGiven valueCORRECTIONFACTORDIFFERENCE1.50Value to be determined1.375Given value1.250.960.125 ——0.250.125 —0.9450.93Note that the value to be determined lies halfway between given values; therefore, the correction factor is assumed to be halfwaybetween values given.110% OF 6 x 12 CYLINDERFigure 3-2: If we call thestrength of a 6 by 12-inchcylinder 100 percent, thena 4 by 8-inch cylinderwould indicate a strengthabout 4 percent higher(104 percent) for the sameconcrete, or an 8 by 16inch cylinder would indicate only about 96 percent of the strength of the6 by 12.4 x 8 CYLINDER, 104%105100958 x 16 CYLINDER, 96%9024681012DIAMETER OF CYLINDER262012 Concrete Manual

Flexural Strength33.4. Flexural StrengthMany structural components are subject to flexure, or bending. Pavements, slabs and beams are examples of elements that are loaded in flexure. An elementary example is a simple beam loaded at the center and supported at the ends. When this beam is loaded, the bottom fibers (below the neutral axis) arein tension and the upper fibers are in compression. Failure of the beam, if it is made of concrete, will bea tensile failure in the lower fibers, as concrete is much weaker in tension than in compression. Now, ifwe insert some steel bars in the lower part of the beam (reinforced concrete), it will be able to supporta much greater load because the steel bars, called reinforcing steel, have a high tensile strength. See Figure 3-3. Carrying this one step further, if the reinforcing steel is prestressed in tension (prestressed concrete), the beam can carry a still greater load.Figure 3-3: The bottom ofa beam is in tension whenthe beam is loaded. Reinforcing bars are thereforeput in the bottom of thebeam to give it greaterflexural strength.AREINFORCING BARSBThe modulus of rupture is a measure of the flexural strength and is determined by testing a small beam,usually 6 by 6 inches in cross section, in bending. Usual practice is to test a simple beam by applying aconcentrated load at each of the third points. See Figure 3-4. Some agencies test the beams under oneload at the center point, which usually indicates a higher strength than the third-point loading. Centerpoint loading is not usually used for 6-inch beams but is confined to smaller specimens.Figure 3-4: Testing a beamspecimen in flexure.LOAD6 x 6 x 21 IN.BEAM.6 IN.6 IN.6 IN.18 IN.2012 Concrete Manual27

Chapter 3 3.1 The Importance of Strength 3.2 Strength Level Required KINDS OF STRENGTH 3.3 Compressive Strength 3.4 Flexural Strength 3.5 Tensile Strength 3.6 Shear, Torsion and Combined Stresses 3.7 Relationship of Test Strength to the Structure MEASUREMENT OF STRENGTH 3.8 Job-Molded Specimens 3.9 Testing of Hardened Concrete FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH 3.10 General Comments

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