The History Of Islamic Political Thought
The History of Islamic PoliticalThoughtFrom the Prophet to the PresentSecond EditionANTONY BLACKEdinburgh University Press
To Aileen, and Christopher Antony Black, 2001, 2011First published 2001 byEdinburgh University Press Ltd22 George Square, Edinburghwww.euppublishing.comSecond edition 2011Typeset in Trump Medievalby Koinonia, Bury, andprinted and bound in Great Britain byCPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and EastbourneMPG Books Ltd, BodminA CIP record for this book is availablefrom the British LibraryISBN 978 0 7486 3986 1 (hardback)ISBN 978 0 7486 3987 8 (paperback)The right of Antony Blackto be identified as author of this workhas been asserted in accordance withthe Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
ContentsAnalytical Table of ContentsAbbreviationsMapTime ChartPreface to the Second Revised and Expanded EditionIntroductionPart I123456viixixiixivxvi1The Messenger and the Law c.622–1000The Mission of MuhammadThe Idea of Monarchy under the Umayyads and ÆAbbasidsc.661–850The Formation of the ShariÆaShiÆismThe Restoration of Persia c.850–1050Knowledge and Power: Philosophy without the Polis91832405057Part II Religion and State Power (din wa dawla): The Sunni Doctrineof the State c.900–1220789101112The Theory of the CaliphateState and Religion under the SaljuksAl-Ghazali: Mysticism and PoliticsThe Ethics of Power: Advice-to-Kings (nasihat al-muluk)Ibn RushdSufism and Politics819197111118132
vi THE HISTORY OF ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHTPart III The ShariÆa and the Sword c.1220–150013141516171819The Rape of AsiaMamluk Ideology and the Sultan-CaliphNasir al-Din Tusi (1201–74): Social Philosophy and Status GroupsIbn Taymiyya (1263–1328): ShariÆa Governance (al-siyasaal-sharÆiyya)The Delhi Sultanate and al-Barani: Statecraft and MoralityIbn Khaldun (1332–1406): The Science of Civilisation and theGovernance of IslamThe Decline of Classical Islamic Political Thought141145149158164169186Part IV Religious Ideology and Political Control in Early Modern States2021222324A New World OrderThe State of the House of Osman (devlet-i al-i Osman)The SafavidsIndia and the MughalsThe Decline and Reform of the Ottoman EmpirePart V25262728195199223240256Islam and the WestModernism from the Ottoman Reforms to the Turkish RevolutionConservatism and Modernism in IranIslamismIslamism, Modernism and the Secular Index of NamesIndex of Subjects353356369372
Analytical Table of ContentsAbbreviationsMapTime ChartPreface to the Second Revised and Expanded EditionIntroductionxixiixivxvi1Part I The Messenger and the Law c.622–10001 The Mission of MuhammadProphet and the tribe; a new kind of political society; the warsof succession2 The Idea of Monarchy under the Umayyads and ÆAbbasids c.661–850The patrimonial Caliphate; Iranian influences and Ibn MuqaffaÆ;Abu Yusuf; the Caliph al-Ma’mun; al-Jahiz; the failure of theCaliphate3 The Formation of the ShariÆaThe Æulama and the hadith; al-ShafiÆi and the method of al-Sunna(Tradition); political implications4 ShiÆismThe Imami ShiÆites; a theory of leadership; the IsmaÆilis;Fatimid political theory; the Nizaris and violent revolution5 The Restoration of Persia c.850–1050The dawla of the dynastic state; Firdausi on the ancient kings;Ibn Qutaiba and status groups6 Knowledge and Power: Philosophy without the PolisAl-Farabi and the Brethren of Purity; methods of knowing;knowledge and Leadership (imama); the political community;the division of labour and social groups; Ibn Sina (Avicenna)91832405057
viii THE HISTORY OF ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHTPart II Religion and State Power (din wa dawla): The Sunni Doctrineof the State c.900–12207 The Theory of the Caliphate81Sunni political theology; the Leadership (imama) or Caliphate(khilafa); al-Mawardi on the Caliphate and political power8 State and Religion under the Saljuks91Nizam al-Mulk and the Saljuk regime; Saljuk political theory;the middle way9 Al-Ghazali: Mysticism and Politics97Religious knowledge (Æilm) and politics; the spiritual and theworldly; the middle way; religion and politics; the origin andjustification of the state; Caliph and Sultan; religious governance;conclusion10 The Ethics of Power: Advice-to-Kings (nasihat al-muluk)111The religio-political legacy of the Saljuks; the Advice genre:‘The Sea of Precious Virtue’; justice and the circle of power;‘The Wisdom of Royal Glory’ and Turkish political culture11 Ibn Rushd118Religion and politics in Spain; philosophy in Spain; Ibn Rushd(Averroes): philosophy and religious knowledge; Ibn Rushd’spolitical writings; the origin and justification of the state;contemporary observations; Fakhr al-Din Razi in Khwarazmand the circle of power12 Sufism and Politics132Kai Kawus and Najm al-din Razi on the dignity of work;an attempt to restore the Caliph as political leaderPart III The ShariÆa and the Sword c.1220–150013 The Rape of AsiaThe Mongol invasions; a revival of Irano-Islamic political culture;the Black Death and Timur14 Mamluk Ideology and the Sultan-CaliphIntegration of religion and polity; the Sultan-Caliph; Ibn JamaÆaand the justification of power based on force15 Nasir al-Din Tusi (1201–74): Social Philosophy and Status GroupsRevival of Imami ShiÆism: the authority of the mujtahid (wellqualified jurist); Nasir al-din Tusi: a synthesis of Jurisprudence,Aristotle and Iranian lore; humanity; political society; politicalassociations; status groups16 Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328): ShariÆa Governance (al-siyasa al-sharÆiyya)Religion requires state power; the ruler’s responsibilities17 The Delhi Sultanate and al-Barani: Statecraft and MoralityMuslims and Hindus; al-Barani (c.1285–c.1357); secular law18 Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406): The Science of Civilisation andthe Governance of IslamMethodology; human civilisation and its driving forces; powerand the state; political economy and the duties of government;141145149158164169
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTSixIslamic and non-Islamic forms of authority; the political situationof Muslims at present; Ibn Khaldun’s political ethics; epistemology;Ibn Khaldun as a social scientist19 The Decline of Classical Islamic Political Thought186Failed states; cultural stagnation; Dawanion status groups; Khunji on the ShariÆa and governancePart IV Religious Ideology and Political Control in Early Modern States20 A New World Order21 The State of the House of Osman (devlet-i al-i Osman)Political culture and the organisation of public life; religion andstate (din ve devlet); the patrimonial sultan; sultanic ideology;religious leadership; self-management and diversity; ShariÆa andkanun (state law); political theory; ‘the order of the world’and classes22 The SafavidsSacred and patrimonial monarchy; ideological controversy;al-Karaki (c.1466–1534) and the religio-political authority of theMujtahid; monarchy versus clergy; the Majlisi revolution andthe clerical ascent to power; tribalism and political decline23 India and the MughalsAkbar (r.1556–1605), the enlightening monarch; religioustoleration; a spiritual emperor; orthodox Sunni political thought;Wali Allah of Delhi (1703–62) on human nature and civilisation24 The Decline and Reform of the Ottoman EmpireThe decline and reform school; Mustafa ÆAli (1541–1600);al-Aqhisari on status groups; why is the state in decline?What should be done?; the use of history and of Ibn Khaldun;advocates of stricter religious observance; the beginnings ofWesternisationPart V Islam and the West25 Modernism from the Ottoman Reforms to the Turkish RevolutionThe Ottoman Tanzimat (reform) (1839–71); parliamentaryliberalism and Islamic values: the Young Ottomans; Khayr al-Dinal-Tunisi; Jamal al-Din al-Afghani: rationalism, republicanismand the religio-political revival of Islam; the Turkish revolution26 Conservatism and Modernism in Iran27 IslamismThe Muslim Brethren, al-Maududi, Sayyid Qutb; Khomeini andthe Iranian revolution of 1979; the Constitution of 197928 Islamism, Modernism and the Secular StateConstitutional theory; religion and politics; hermeneutics;the secular state; economic justice; international relationsConclusion195199223240256281300304324347
x THE HISTORY OF ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHTGlossaryBibliographyIndex of NamesIndex of Subjects353356369372
AbbreviationsAbbreviations in Roman type refer to entries in the Bibliography.ASBLBSOASCH IndiaCH IranCH IslamEIICIJMESISJSAILMNLQ.REISIVCZDMGAlam and Subrahmanyam (eds) (1998)Ashtiany et al. (eds) (1990)Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African StudiesThe New Cambridge History of IndiaThe Cambridge History of IranThe Cambridge History of IslamEncyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ednIslamic CultureInternational Journal of Middle Eastern StudiesIslamic StudiesJerusalem Studies in Arabic and IslamLerner and Mahdi (eds) (1963)Nasr and Leaman (eds) (1996)QuræanRevue d’Études IslamiquesStudia Islamicaal-Farabi, The Virtuous (or Excellent) City, ed. R. Walzer(see p. 77, n. 14)Zeitschrift der Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft
Preface to the Second Revisedand Expanded EditionThis aspires to be a complete history of Islamic political thought fromthe beginning (c.622) to the present. It aims to be both a description andan interpretation. I have explored the milieu, meaning and significanceof thinkers, ideas and political cultures. This work encompasses religion, law,ethics, philosophy and statecraft. These have been expressed in systematictreatises, occasional writings, official rhetoric and popular slogans.The history of Islamic political thought is a gripping story in its own right.Up to now it has been neglected by all but a few specialists. Islam was, and is,one of the most powerful means of explaining human life and giving meaningto our activity. As a political ideology, it has motivated, and still motivates,individuals and groups. It is especially important today because, rightly orwrongly, it is perceived as the antagonist of Western values. Yet little attentionhas been paid to the history of Islamic political thought. One cannot understand political Islam today without understanding where it is coming from.Political and social movements within contemporary Islam are at least partlygrounded on ideas; ideas based on historical precedents and earlier models.The present volume was conceived as the first stage in a systematic comparison between the histories of Western and Islamic political thought. Thisseemed to be the best way forward if one wanted to throw new light on whyeither tradition developed in the way that it did. The rationale, indeed urgency,of such comparison is further discussed in the Introduction (see also Black2009). I have attempted to consummate this undertaking in The West andIslam: Religion and Political Thought in World History (2008). In recent years,comparative political thought has become increasingly popular. Sometimes itmeans little more than incorporating non-Western ideas and authors into thestudy of political theory (Dallmayr 2010) – an admirable enterprise, but notstrictly comparative, ‘multi-cultural’ rather than inter-cultural.There are several reasons why a second edition is necessary. The firstedition was published in July 2001. Since the jihadist attack on the UnitedStates in September 2001, there have been developments in Muslim politicalthought that need to be seen in a broad historical context. I have attempted toincorporate the new trends in Islamic political thinking, reformist no less thanIslamist. The relationship between Islamic and Western political thinking hasbecome a matter of urgency.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITIONxviiIt goes without saying that the responses of the US and UK governmentswould have benefited from taking some account of the historical and political knowledge available to them at that time. It might have made them seethe two (very dissimilar) societies that they considered invading in a differentlight. They might have recognised, among other things, along with Ibn Khaldun(below, Chapter 18), that less sophisticated humans have within them resourcesof spirit that others fail to recognise at their peril. They might have thoughttwice about playboy acts of childish (because not properly thought-out) revenge– not the best advertisement, you might say, for a ‘civilisation’ that some claimto be ‘Christian’. And these gave their opponents a kudos they did not deserve.There have been advances in scholarship in recent years. Patricia Crone’sMedieval Islamic Political Thought (2004a) stands out as a combination ofprecise analysis and broad insights. The works of Wael B. Hallaq (1997, 2005)throw new light on the development of law and jurisprudence. AbdesselamCheddadi (2006) has given us the most complete analysis and reinterpretationof Ibn Khaldun to date. Finally, there are the imperfections in one’s work whichone only becomes aware of over time. It is a bonus to be able to remedy these.The book is divided into five parts: Part I, the formative period, from earlyIslam to about 1050; Part II from the Saljuks to the Mongol invasions – themost prolific period; Part III from c.1220 to c.1500, a period of isolated giantsand the decline of classical Islamic thought; Part IV the early modern empires;and Part V the period of Western influence and interaction, from c.1830 untiltoday.For this second edition, I have reorganised, supplemented and completelyre-written Part V to take account of recent developments. I have re-written thechapters on al-Ghazali and Ibn Khaldun. Several other chapters have been revised.Chapters 7, 10, 12, 13–17 and 21–23 remain as they were in the first edition.styleI have attempted to present ideas remote from ourselves in time and place asfar as possible in the idiom of those who expressed them and in the categoriesof their own culture. Many of the categories of European historiography (suchas ‘medieval’, ‘renaissance’, ‘feudalism’ and ‘class’) are not directly applicableto the Islamic world,1 and I have avoided them where possible. I have given themeaning of original words or concepts (for example, ShariÆa) at its first mentionand in the Glossary; I have subsequently used either the original term or theclosest English equivalent (with a capital letter: Law, Code, Religious Law).Diacritical marks are omitted in the main text but are given in the Glossary andIndex. Sometimes terms like religio-political or moral-legal best describe whatis being discussed. Dates are based on the (‘Western’) Common Era (bc/ad).bibliography and referencesI have indicated further reading in notes at the beginning of chapters or sections.In order to minimise notes without cluttering up the text, I have used the
xviii THE HISTORY OF ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHTauthor–date system for frequently cited works, which are in the Bibliography,and conventional referencing for other works.acknowledgementsMy knowledge of original languages is confined to a limited acquaintance withArabic. I have relied almost entirely on translations of original texts. I havetried to acquaint myself with the nuances of key terms so as to be able to graspand convey the meaning of the originals. Since I do not read Arabic, Persian orTurkish, I am more than usually indebted to other scholars. I am grateful, firstand foremost, to Islamicists who encouraged me as a novice when I set out onthis venture despite my linguistic deficiencies, in the hope perhaps that divisionof labour may sometimes be fruitful. I am grateful to Patricia Crone, SamiZubaida, Oliver Leaman, Richard Kimber, Ahmed Andrews and the late SalimKemal for enlightening discussions. Patricia Crone has read and commentedexhaustively on drafts of Chapters 1–5 and 12, and responded more than generously to my many queries about early Islam. Sami Zubaida has enlightened mein many conversations, and read and commented on Chapters 25 and 26. I amalso very grateful to numerous scholars who have generously given their timeto read and comment on various chapters: Michael Cook and Ira Lapidus onChapters 1–3; Wilferd Madelung on Chapter 4; Oliver Leaman on Chapters 6and 11; Carole Hillenbrand on Chapters 7–9; Kate Fleet on Chapters 20 and 21;Charles Melville on Chapter 22; Virginia Aksan on Chapters 24 and 25; BrianBaxter and Antony Wood on the Introduction. On Ottoman political thoughtMetin Kunt gave me advice, and Rhoads Murphey clarified some textual points.These colleagues have saved me from many pitfalls, and indicated omissions,which where possible I have tried to make good. I have not always succeeded,and the errors which remain are entirely mine.I owe a special debt of gratitude to Janet Coleman, and the directors of theEuropean Science Foundation project on The Origins of the Modern State(1989–92), Jean-Philippe Genet and Wim Blockmanns, for including me in aworking-group on The Individual in Theory and Practice. It was through theirintellectual hospitality, and the associated meeting with Turkish scholars inIstanbul (October 1991), that the present study was conceived.I am grateful to the Nuffield Foundation for giving me a half-time researchfellowship in 1993–4, which enabled me to continue research (though alasnot to continue learning Arabic) despite being ‘head of department’. I am alsograteful to the British Academy for two small grants and to the University ofDundee for a small research grant, which have enabled me to travel to libraries.I would like to thank Nicola Ramsey of Edinburgh University Press for herthoughtfulness in helping me prepare this second edition.My friends and family know how much I owe to them.note1. See Antony Black, ‘Decolonization of Concepts’, Journal of Early Modern History 1(1997), pp. 55–69.
IntroductionIslam comprises a distinct and self-contained cultural unit. Political thoughtis the study of the exercise of power, of who should exercise it, and howmuch power they should have; it is about justice in relationships betweenpeople, especially between those in power and those they rule, and the justdistribution of goods in society. It enquires why states exist and what theyshould try to achieve.Islamic political thought forms a significant part of the intellectual historyof homo sapiens. It comprises a coherent, ongoing tradition, separate from theWest and with a logic of its own. Within it are an array of sub-stories. The sourcesand data examined in this book are, therefore, an intrinsic part of human experience and achievement; the words and thoughts of generous spirits remain asvital as if they were still alive. Yet the history of Islamic political thought hasbeen neglected by Western historians and political theorists alike.In studying a subject like this, one is able to recognise and enjoy the diversity of human undertakings, the excitement of discovery, the kinship of thedifferent. Since we are all members of one species, we should be able to understand each other’s cultures, and recognise in them things which have somerelevance to ourselves. Love of what is different is natural to an enquiringmind. The ‘other’ does not have to be an enemy; and indeed Edward Said’sfamed critique of the Western historiography of Islam1 pales before the centuries of Islamic cultural imperialism, not only directed against Christendomand the West. In any case, history, insofar as it keeps alive the memory of pastwrongs, is not helpful for the future. World history and comparative history arenot tastes acquired from colonialism or globalisation. To reject them is to lockeveryone into their own backyard.Western political thought has been studied in great detail. Particular aspectsof Islamic political thought have been studied, though there remains muchscope for research. Attempts have been made to trace a continuous story forWestern political thought, usually from the early Greeks to the present day;this ‘history of political thought’ has entered university curricula. Yet hardlyany attempt has been made to look at Islamic political thought as a whole, topresent its history from the origins to the present day. The only com
The history of Islamic political thought is a gripping story in its own right. Up to now it has been neglected by all but a few specialists. Islam was, and is, one of the most powerful means of explaining human life and giving meaning to our activity. As a political ideology, it has motivated, and still motivates, individuals and groups.
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