SixTh EdiTion Theoretical
Sixth EditionTheoreticalModels andProcessesof ReadingDonna E. AlvermannNorman J. UnrauRobert B. RuddellEditors
IRA BOARD OF DIRECTORSCarrice C. Cummins, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, Louisiana, President Maureen McLaughlin, East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania, East Stroudsburg,Pennsylvania, President-elect Jill D. Lewis-Spector, New Jersey City University, JerseyCity, New Jersey, Vice President Jay S. Blanchard, Arizona State University, Tempe,Arizona Kathy Headley, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina Joyce G. Hinman,Bismarck Public Schools, Bismarck, North Dakota Heather I. Bell, Rosebank School,Auckland, New Zealand Steven L. Layne, Judson University, Elgin, Illinois William H. Teale, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Douglas Fisher,San Diego State University, San Diego, California Rona F. Flippo, University ofMassachusetts Boston, Boston, Massachusetts Shelley Stagg Peterson, OISE/Universityof Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Marcie Craig Post, Executive DirectorThe International Reading Association attempts, through its publications, to provide a forumfor a wide spectrum of opinions on reading. This policy permits divergent viewpoints withoutimplying the endorsement of the Association.Executive Editor, Publications Shannon FortnerAcquisitions Manager Tori Mello BachmanManaging Editors Susanne Viscarra and Christina M. LambertEditorial Associate Wendy LoganCreative Services/Production Manager Anette SchuetzDesign and Composition Associate Lisa KochelCover Frank Pessia and Hemera/ThinkstockCopyright 2013 by the International Reading Association, Inc.All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any formor by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, or any information storageand retrieval system, without permission from the publisher.The publisher would appreciate notification where errors occur so that they may be correctedin subsequent printings and/or editions.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataTheoretical models and processes of reading / Donna E. Alvermann, University of Georgia,Norman J. Unrau, California State University, Los Angeles, Robert B. Ruddell, University ofCalifornia, Berkeley, editors. — Sixth edition.pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-87207-710-1 (978-0-87207-710-2 : alk. paper) 1. Reading. 2. Reading—Research. I. Alvermann, Donna E. II. Unrau, Norman. III. Ruddell, Robert B.LB1050.T48 2013428.4—dc232012048890Suggested APA ReferenceAlvermann, D.E., Unrau, N.J., & Ruddell, R.B. (Eds.). (2013). Theoretical models andprocesses of reading (6th ed.). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
We dedicate this sixth edition of Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading toHarold L. “Hal” Herber,an individual whose scholarship spanned many years of reading research andwho touched many lives as a teacher, teacher educator, mentor, and friend.
CONTENTSAbout the EditorsContributorsPrefaceixxiixviiiPerspectives on Literacy Research1and Its ApplicationSECTION ONE1. A Historical Perspective on Reading Research and Practice, Redux3Patricia A. Alexander and Emily Fox2. Literacies and Their Investigation Through Theories and Models47Norman J. Unrau and Donna E. Alvermann3. Synergy in Literacy Research Methodology91Marla H. Mallette, Nell K. Duke, Stephanie L. Strachan, Chad H. Waldron,and Lynne M. WatanabeSECTION T WOProcesses of Reading and LiteracyPart 1. Language and Cognition in Sociocultural Contexts4. Reading as Situated Language: A Sociocognitive Perspective129136James Paul Gee5. The Place of Dialogue in Children’s Construction of Meaning152M.A.K. Halliday6. Social Talk and Imaginative Play: Curricular Basics for Young Children’sLanguage and Literacy164Anne Haas Dyson and Celia Genishi7. Exploring Vygotskian Perspectives in Education: The Cognitive Valueof Peer Interaction182Ellice A. Forman and Courtney B. Cazden8. It’s a Book! It’s a Bookstore! Theories of Reading in the Worldsof Childhood and Adolescence204Shirley Brice Heath9. Emergent Biliteracy in Young Mexican Immigrant Children228Iliana Reyes and Patricia Azuara10. Revisiting Is October Brown Chinese? A Cultural Modeling Activity Systemfor Underachieving Students265Carol D. Lee
Part 2. Foundations for Literacy Development11. Sustained Acceleration of Achievement in Reading Comprehension:The New Zealand Experience297Mei Kuin Lai, Stuart McNaughton, Meaola Amituanai-Toloa, Rolf Turner,and Selena Hsiao12. Phases of Word Learning: Implications for Instruction With Delayedand Disabled Readers339Linnea C. Ehri and Sandra McCormick13. Developing Early Literacy Skills: Things We Know We Know and ThingsWe Know We Don’t Know362Christopher J. Lonigan and Timothy Shanahan14. Advancing Early Literacy Learning for All Children: Implicationsof the NELP Report for Dual-Language Learners375Kris D. Gutiérrez, Marlene Zepeda, and Dina C. Castro15. Fluency: Developmental and Remedial Practices—Revisited385Melanie R. Kuhn and Steven A. Stahl16. A Road Map for Understanding Reading Disabilities and Other ReadingProblems, Redux412Louise Spear-SwerlingPart 3. Comprehension Development From Words to Worlds17. Language Pathways Into the Community of Minds437Katherine Nelson18. Vocabulary Processes458William E. Nagy and Judith A. Scott19. Role of the Reader’s Schema in Comprehension, Learning,and Memory476Richard C. Anderson20. Schema Theory Revisited489Mary B. McVee, KaiLonnie Dunsmore, and James R. Gavelek21. To Err Is Human: Learning About Language Processes by AnalyzingMiscues525Yetta M. Goodman and Kenneth S. Goodman22. Cognitive Flexibility Theory: Advanced Knowledge Acquisitionin Ill-Structured Domains544Rand J. Spiro, Richard L. Coulson, Paul J. Feltovich, and Daniel K. Anderson23. Educational Neuroscience for Reading ResearchersGeorge G. Hruby and Usha Goswami558
Part 4. Motivation and Engagement24. Effects of Motivational and Cognitive Variables on ReadingComprehension589Ana Taboada, Stephen M. Tonks, Allan Wigfield, and John T. Guthrie25. Toward a More Anatomically Complete Model of Literacy Instruction:A Focus on African American Male Adolescents and Texts611Alfred W. TatumPart 5. Instructional Effects on Literacy Development26. Marie M. Clay’s Theoretical Perspective: A Literacy ProcessingTheory636Mary Anne Doyle27. Instructing Comprehension-Fostering Activities in Interactive LearningSituations657Ann L. Brown, Annemarie Sullivan Palincsar, and Bonnie B. ArmbrusterSECTION THREEProcessesModels of Reading and Writing691Part 1. Cognitive-Processing Models28. Toward a Theory of Automatic Information Processing in Reading,Revisited698S. Jay Samuels29. Toward an Interactive Model of Reading719David E. Rumelhart30. A Theory of Reading: From Eye Fixations to Comprehension748Marcel Adam Just and Patricia A. Carpenter31. Modeling the Connections Between Word Recognition and Reading783Marilyn Jager Adams32. Revisiting the Construction–Integration Model of Text Comprehensionand Its Implications for Instruction807Walter Kintsch33. Understanding the Relative Contributions of Lower-Level Word Processes,Higher-Level Processes, and Working Memory to Reading ComprehensionPerformance in Proficient Adult Readers840Brenda HannonPart 2. A Dual Coding Model34. A Dual Coding Theoretical Model of Reading886Mark Sadoski and Allan PaivioPart 3. A Transactional Model35. The Transactional Theory of Reading and WritingLouise M. Rosenblatt923
Part 4. Integrated Reading and Writing Models36. Reading–Writing Connections: Discourse-Oriented Research957Giovanni Parodi37. Enacting Rhetorical Literacies: The Expository Reading and WritingCurriculum in Theory and Practice978Mira-Lisa Katz, Nancy Brynelson, and John R. EdlundPart 5. A Sociocognitive Model38. Reading as a Motivated Meaning-Construction Process: The Reader,1015the Text, and the TeacherRobert B. Ruddell and Norman J. UnrauLiteracy’s New Horizons: An Emerging1069Agenda for Tomorrow’s Research and PracticeSECTION FOUR39. Adolescent Literacy Instruction and the Discourse of “Every Teachera Teacher of Reading”1072Donna E. Alvermann and Elizabeth Birr Moje40. Literacy Research in the 21st Century: From Paradigms to Pragmatismand Practicality1104Deborah R. Dillon, David G. O’Brien, and Elizabeth E. Heilman41. National Reports in Literacy: Building a Scientific Base for Practiceand Policy1133P. David Pearson and Elfrieda H. Hiebert42. New Literacies: A Dual-Level Theory of the Changing Nature of Literacy,Instruction, and Assessment1150Donald J. Leu, Charles K. Kinzer, Julie Coiro, Jill Castek, and Laurie A. Henry43. The Social Practice of Multimodal Reading: A New Literacy Studies–Multimodal Perspective on Reading1182Jennifer Rowsell, Gunther Kress, Kate Pahl, and Brian Street44. Imagined Readers and Hospitable Texts: Global Youths ConnectOnline1208Glynda Hull, Amy Stornaiuolo, and Laura Sterponi45. 21st-Century Skills: Cultural, Linguistic, and MotivationalPerspectives1241Robert RuedaAuthor Index1269Subject Index1302
From Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (6th ed.), edited by Donna E. Alvermann, Norman J. Unrau,and Robert B. Ruddell. 2013 International Reading Association.ABOUT THE EDITORSDonna E. Alvermann is an appointed Distinguished ResearchProfessor in the Department of Language and Literacy Educationat The University of Georgia, Athens. She was formerly a classroom teacher in Texas and New York. Her research focuses onyoung people’s literacy practices in classrooms, out-of-schoolsettings (e.g., libraries), and digital environments.The author of over 150 articles in journals such as AmericanEducational Research Journal, Reading Research Quarterly, andJournal of Literacy Research, Donna codirected the National Reading ResearchCenter, funded by the U.S. Department of Education, from 1992 to 1997. Hercoauthored/edited books include Content Area Reading and Literacy: Succeedingin Today’s Diverse Classrooms (7th ed., Pearson, 2013); Reconceptualizing theLiteracies in Adolescents’ Lives (3rd ed., Routledge, 2012); Adolescents’ OnlineLiteracies: Connecting Classrooms, Digital Media, and Popular Culture (Peter Lang,2010); Adolescents and Literacies in a Digital World (Peter Lang, 2004); and BringIt to Class: Unpacking Pop Culture in Literacy Learning (Teachers College Press,2010). She also coedited the International Reading Association’s premier researchjournal, Reading Research Quarterly (2003–2007), and served as president of theNational Reading Conference (now the Literacy Research Association).Currently a member of the Intermediate and Adolescent Literacy AdvisoryGroup of the Alliance for Excellent Education in Washington, DC, Donna hasbeen the recipient of the Literacy Research Association’s Oscar S. Causey Awardfor Outstanding Contributions to Reading Research, the Literacy ResearchAssociation’s Albert J. Kingston Award for Distinguished Service, and the ALERLaureate Award. Elected to the Reading Hall of Fame in 1999, she was alsoawarded the International Reading Association’s highest honor, the William S.Gray Citation of Merit, in 2006. From 2008 to 2010, Donna was the U.S. advisor tothe international ADORE Project, funded by the European Commission/EU, thatresearched teacher education involving adolescent readers in Germany, Belgium,Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Switzerland.In her spare time, Donna listens to bluegrass and folk, takes long road tripswith Jack, and plays with Jazz, her 3-year-old golden retriever.Norman J. Unrau is a professor emeritus of California StateUniversity, Los Angeles, where he served in the Division ofCurriculum and Instruction and taught courses on literacy,cognition, and learning in the credential and M.A. programs.He also served as the coordinator of the M.A. in Educationprogram with a focus on middle and high school curriculumand instruction. He continues to teach graduate students,ix
engage in research, and serve on California State University committees to promote academic literacy in schools.Norm completed his master’s degree at Columbia University’s Teachers Col lege. After teaching high school English and social studies for nearly 25 years, hecompleted his doctorate in education at the University of California, Berkeley. Hiswork at Berkeley focused on cognition in reading and writing. Norm has servedas editor of the International Reading Association’s Journal of Adolescent & AdultLiteracy and is the author of Content Area Reading and Writing: Fostering Literaciesin Middle and High School Cultures (2nd ed., Pearson, 2008) and ThoughtfulTeachers, Thoughtful Learners: Helping Students Think Critically (2nd ed., Pippin,2008). He served as coeditor of the fifth edition (2004) of Theoretical Models andProcess of Reading with Bob Ruddell. Norm has also published articles on reading,writing, critical thinking, assessment, motivation, and graduate programs in education that have appeared in the Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, The Journalof Educational Research, Reading Psychology, Teacher Education Quarterly, Issues inTeacher Education, and other professional journals.When not teaching, reading, or writing, Norm enjoys playing tennis and thesaxophone, traveling with his wife, Cherene, who teaches piano, and biking bythe ocean with his daughter, Amy.Robert B. Ruddell is a professor emeritus in the Language,Literacy, and Culture faculty group at the University ofCalifornia, Berkeley. He began his teaching career at age 18 ina one-room schoolhouse in a coal mining community in theAppalachian Mountains of his home state of West Virginia.His work with the primary-grade students in that school wasthe genesis of his interest in understanding the nature of thereading process. (While in that school, he dismissed schoolearly one day each month to visit the homes and families of each of his 32 students; he is still in contact with six of them.)Bob received a combined M.A. degree from West Virginia University andGeorge Peabody College for Teachers. After completing his doctorate at IndianaUniversity, he taught credential and graduate courses in reading and languagedevelopment and directed the Advanced Reading and Language LeadershipProgram at the University of California, Berkeley. Over the years, he has workedclosely with his doctoral students, advising and directing the research and dissertations of 86 of these Ed.D. and Ph.D. students. Bob has successfully mixedconsultation in public schools with his university teaching and research, workingwith teachers in both inner city and rural schools. He has lectured and conductedworkshops for teachers in each of the 50 states, as well as in England, Sweden,Germany, Australia, Canada, and the Ivory Coast.Bob is the recipient of the International Reading Association’s William S. GrayCitation of Merit, which recognizes lifetime achievement and leadership contributions to the field of reading and literacy development. He also received thexAbout the Editors
Oscar S. Causey Research Award from the National Reading Conference, recognizing his research on effective and influential literacy teachers. He received theMarcus Foster Memorial Reading Award from the California Reading Associationfor his teaching and research and was the recipient of the Indiana UniversityCitation Award presented to former graduate students who have made outstanding contributions to literacy. He has served as the president of the Reading Hall ofFame and on the IRA Board of Directors.Bob is the author of the fifth edition of the widely used literacy methods textHow to Teach Reading to Elementary and Middle School Students: Practical IdeasFrom Highly Effective Teachers (Pearson, 2009). Along with his coeditorship ofthe present edition of Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (TMPR6), healso was coeditor with M.R. Ruddell and Harry Singer of TMPR4 (1994) and withNorman Unrau of TMPR5 (2004). Bob coedited the earlier volumes, TMPR (1970),TMPR2 (1976), and TMPR3 (1985), with Harry Singer.Bob’s articles have appeared in The Reading Teacher and Language Arts, as wellas in a variety of research journals and yearbooks. He was senior editor of thePathfinder reading program series (Allyn & Bacon, 1978). His research and teaching interests focus on the study of comprehension and critical thinking, wordidentification strategies, reading motivation, and ways in which highly effectiveand influential teachers develop these skills in their students.Bob and his wife, Sandra, enjoy traveling throughout the United States andinternationally. They especially enjoy visits from their three grandchildren:Rebecca, Grace, and Madeline. Bob delights in conversations with his former students, and he relaxes with suspense and mystery novels and a good round of golf.About the Editorsxi
From Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (6th ed.), edited by Donna E. Alvermann, Norman J. Unrau,and Robert B. Ruddell. 2013 International Reading Association.CONTRIBUTORSAnn L. Brown (Deceased)Graduate School of EducationUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeley, California, USAMarilyn Jager AdamsDepartment of Cognitive, Linguistic,and Psychological SciencesBrown UniversityProvidence, Rhode Island, USAPatricia A. AlexanderCollege of EducationUniversity of Maryland, College ParkCollege Park, Maryland, USANancy BrynelsonCenter for the Advancement of ReadingOffice of the ChancellorCalifornia State UniversitySacramento, California, USADonna E. AlvermannDepartment of Language and LiteracyEducationThe University of GeorgiaAthens, Georgia, USAPatricia A. CarpenterPsychology DepartmentCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USAJill CastekCollege of Liberal Arts and SciencesPortland State UniversityPortland, Oregon, USAMeaola Amituanai-ToloaWoolf Fisher Research CentreUniversity of AucklandAuckland, New ZealandDina C. CastroFrank Porter Graham ChildDevelopment InstituteUniversity of North Carolina atChapel HillChapel Hill, North Carolina, USADaniel K. AndersonSharecareBurlington, Vermont, USARichard C. Anderson (Emeritus)College of EducationUniversity of Illinois atUrbana-ChampaignChampaign, Illinois, USACourtney B. Cazden (Emerita)Graduate School of EducationHarvard UniversityCambridge, Massachusetts, USABonnie B. Armbruster (Emerita)Center for the Study of ReadingUniversity of Illinois atUrbana-ChampaignChampaign, Illinois, USAJulie L. CoiroSchool of EducationUniversity of Rhode IslandKingston, Rhode Island, USAPatricia AzuaraCollege of Education and HumanDevelopmentUniversity of ArizonaTucson, Arizona, USARichard L. Coulson (Emeritus)Southern Illinois University Schoolof MedicineCarbondale, Illinois, USAxii
Deborah R. DillonDepartment of Curriculum andInstructionUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolis, Minnesota, USAMary Anne DoyleNeag School of EducationUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, Connecticut, USANell K. DukeSchool of EducationUniversity of MichiganAnn Arbor, Michigan, USAKaiLonnie DunsmoreNational Center for LiteracyEducationUrbana, Illinois, USAAnne Haas DysonCollege of EducationUniversity of Illinois atUrbana-ChampaignChampaign, Illinois, USAJohn R. EdlundDepartment of English and ForeignLanguagesCalifornia State PolytechnicUniversity, PomonaPomona, California, USAEmily FoxCollege of EducationUniversity of Maryland, College ParkCollege Park, Maryland, USAJames R. GavelekCollege of EducationUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicago, Illinois, USAJames Paul GeeMary Lou Fulton Teachers CollegeArizona State UniversityPhoenix, Arizona, USACelia GenishiTeachers CollegeColumbia UniversityNew York, New York, USAKenneth S. Goodman (Emeritus)College of EducationUniversity of ArizonaTucson, Arizona, USAYetta M. Goodman (Emerita)College of EducationUniversity of ArizonaTucson, Arizona, USAUsha GoswamiCentre for Neuroscience in EducationUniversity of CambridgeCambridge, UKLinnea C. EhriGraduate CenterCity University of New
SECTION FOURLiteracy’s New Horizons: An Emerging Agenda for Tomorrow’s Research and Practice 1069 39. Adolescent Literacy Instruction and the Discourse of “Every Teacher a Teacher of Reading” 1072 Donna E. Alvermann and Elizabeth Birr Moje 40. Literacy Research in the 21st Century: From Paradigms to Pragmatism and Practicality 1104
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