AIRPORTS’ RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING CLIMATE
ACI Policy Brief - September 2018AIRPORTS’ RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATIONTO A CHANGING CLIMATEMore extreme weather- and climate-related events are expected as the climate continues tochange. The frequency, intensity, spatial extent, duration and timing of events are expected toincrease while slow-onset incremental changes may lead to fundamental transformation of thesocio-economic system. Many airports may remain vulnerable to these events as the risks offlooding, flight disruptions and cancellations become more likely. Airports need to understandthe risks and initiate adaptation measures for both existing and new infrastructure, as well asmanaging critical operations to become more resilient to the changing climate.ACI members adopted a resolution (ACI Resolution 3/2018 on resilience and adaptation to climatechange) in Brussels in June 2018 recognizing the potential impact of climate change on airportinfrastructure and operations, and encouraging member airports to conduct risk assessments,develop mitigation measures and communication channels, and take climate resilience andadaptation into consideration for their master plans.QUESTIONS FOR AIRPORTS:Are you aware that there isan increased fire risk due tohigher temperatures?Are you aware that moreairports may be used asa shelter or relief hub forweather-related disasters?What should you doto prevent increasingwildlife-strike risks dueto changes in the localecosystem?Will there be enoughwater availablewith increasingdesertification aroundyour airport?What would happento your airport if theelectrical power supplyfailed during strongwinds and storms?AIRPORTS’ RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING CLIMATEwww.aci.aeroDo you know how climatechange may affect thefoundations of terminalbuildings?Is your airport safe frompotential inundation dueto sea-level rise?Have you consideredwhether your runwaywill be long enough foraircraft to take off athigher temperatures?How will temperaturechange affectnavigational signalsand satellite coverage?Can ground access bemaintained with moreextreme disruptiveweather?1
ACI Policy Brief - September 2018An airport is a business, multimodal transportinterchange, employment node, and essentialpiece of regional and national infrastructure forthe communities it serves. As an essential serviceprovider to a wide range of stakeholders andusers, the airport infrastructure and operationsmust have high levels of availability, reliability andresilience. Vulnerabilities to ongoing services fromshort- and long-term projected climate changesmust be identified as part of a responsible businesscontinuity plan.Compiling potential impacts and consequencesof extreme weather events on all aspects of theairport business and operation can enable airportsto prioritize and better respond to these risks. Thismay be based on the airport’s exposure to changingclimate conditions, its sensitivity to adverse impact,or the adaptive capacity when faced with suchchallenges. Those impacts ranked the highestpriority or of prime concern should be addressedfirst through detailed investigation of mitigationoptions and assessment of cost-benefits as part ofan airport’s resiliency plan.The work on climate-change adaptation and resilienceshould include operational considerations on safetyand security, and also legal, environmental, financialand business effects on airport operations. Onlycomprehensive climate-change risk-managementstrategies will ensure the continuity of operation,profitability and asset value. Some airports arealready witnessing gradual change in the investmentenvironment, whereby investors are keen to evaluateclimate-change-related risks and opportunities inaccordance with the framework recommendedby the Task Force on Climate-related FinancialDisclosures (TCFD).Another important element of an adaptation plan isthe coordination with broader airport stakeholdersand surrounding communities. An inclusive,systematic approach to collect intelligence,assess risks, and interact proactively with thesestakeholders will help mitigate long-term financial,economic and operational impacts. Furthermore, asa networked infrastructure, disruptions in one airportmay have a cascading impact on other airports, thewider economy, and even national resilience.how airport facilities and operations can bevulnerable to certain climate and weather stressors.This matrix can be used as a starting point for airportmanagement to develop resiliency and adaptationplans. Annex B provides a sample list of airports thathave already initiated preparation: from vulnerabilityassessment to identification of measures, and fromdesign guidelines to reconstruction. Case studies inAnnex C provide additional insight and backgroundon airports’ adaptation and resiliency activities.ACI RECOMMENDATIONSMost airport infrastructure was designed andconstructed in the era when climate variation wasnot appreciated as it is today, and adaptive measureswere not readily available. However, with morestudies presenting financial and economic benefitsfrom introducing preventive measures compared toreactive response post-impact, ACI recommendsthat airports consider: taking into consideration the potentialimpact of climate-change as they developtheir Master Plans; conducting risk or criticality assessmentsfor their operational procedures and existinginfrastructure from more adverse weatherevents and climate change; developing and incorporating actions atan early stage, in accordance with boththeir risk/criticality assessments and withtheir overall business continuity plans andemergency planning; and planninganddevelopingeffectivecommunication channels with airport staff,and aviation stakeholders, including airlines,air navigation service providers, off-airportservice providers, academia, communitiesand municipal authorities responsible forweather monitoring, climate analysis, anddisaster management.A number of airports around the world have alreadybegun to assess infrastructure and operationalvulnerabilities from a variety of climate- and weatherspecific risks. The matrix in Annex A demonstratesAIRPORTS’ RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING CLIMATEwww.aci.aero2
ACI Policy Brief - September 2018-LevS eaPotential Impacts and Climate Stressorsel RiseIncreaof S setor d IntmensityTemperature CC hahanngigengPreC hacipngiitatngionIcinC hagCngiondngitioWinsDendsertificationANNEX A. POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE STRESSORSON INFRASTRUCTURE AND OPERATIONINFRASTRUCTUREAirfield (including Runways, Taxiways and Aprons)Damage to and deterioration of pavement structureDeterioration of pavement surface (and breakup into Foreign Object Debris(FOD))Increased contamination of pavement surfaces (snow, ice, water)Drainage and run-off systems capabilityElectrical systems (including lighting and signage)Terminals and Landside InfrastructureImpeded ground access, circulation, loading and parkingDamage to buildings and structuresUndermined ground foundationsSupport Facilities, Navigational Aids, Fuel Storage, and OthersDeteriorated facilities and equipmentNavigational signal distortion and satellite coverageIncrease in maintenance, repair, and overhaulElectrical system failure/shortage/spikeIncreased fire risk (flashpoint of jet fuel is around 100 F/38 C)SERVICE, ACCESS, MAINTENANCE, AND OPERATIONSAircraft OperationIncreased runway length needed due to decreased lift and thrust at higherambient temperatureReduced rate of climb and increased fuel consumptionNeed for change in flight path (approach routes, landing, and take-off)AIRPORTS’ RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING CLIMATEwww.aci.aero3
-LevS eaPotential Impacts and Climate Stressorsel Ri seIncreao f S setor d IntmensityTemperature CC hahanngigengPreC hacipngiitatngio nIcinC hagCngiondngitioWinsDendse rtificationACI Policy Brief - September 2018Greater turbulenceReduced visibilityPotential for damage to aircraft (structural, avionics, etc)More maintenance, repair, and overhaulDe-icing needsAir/Ground Navigation ControlReduced visibility (visual and signal line of sight issues)Increased levels of communications system failureWildlife Hazard ManagementChanges in ecosystems and distributions of wildlife and wildlife attractantsIncreased risk of wildlife strikesEmergency ManagementWeather-related emergenciesUse of airport as shelter or as hub for relief operationsOther Operational AspectsReduced water availability due to droughtIncreased heating, ventilation and air conditioning demand and durationDelays and flight cancellationEnvironment ManagementChanges to noise emission pattern and increased complaintsChanges in ecosystems and associated risksReduced air qualityPersonnel and PassengersRisk of heat-related exhaustionChanges in tourism patternsRisks of communicable diseases and epidemicsAIRPORTS’ RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING CLIMATEwww.aci.aero4
ACI Policy Brief - September 2018ANNEX B. SAMPLE OF AIRPORTS’INITIATIVES FOR iaAdelaideAssessment Strategy BrisbaneAsiaPacificAssessmentInfrastructure Upgrade CairnsAssessment Undertook an internal risk screening assessment process andproduced risk registerMackayAssessment Undertook an internal risk screening assessment process andproduced risk registerChinaHong KongCoordination Coordination with national authority, and airport stakeholdersIndiaVishakhapatnamBrief Study USAID supported brief city-wide infrastructure climate risk casestudy on resilienceJapanKansaiStrategy Received the national resilience certification by the governmentas the first airport operator for business continuity planningKoreaKorea Airport CorpStrategy Received Green World Awards 2017 for climate adaptationstrategyParticipating in a government-wide adaptation strategy taskforce REGIONIncorporate climate adaptation into Airport Master Plan 20142034Conducted vulnerability study and infrastructure reviewCurrently, in the process of incorporating, where required,new pavement and building standards into development andconstruction guidelinesNew parallel runway to be built fully integrating climateadaptationNew Auto Mall / Central parking area built on integratingadaptationIncheonStrategy Participating in a government-wide adaptation strategy taskforceSingaporeChangiAssessmentInfrastructure UpgradeNational Strategy New terminal to be built 5.5m above mean sea levelDrainage system upgradedIncorporated in national enAssessment Conducted vulnerability assessment and developed firstemergency plan for extreme rainfall eventsAssessment Conducted vulnerability assessmentAssessmentGuidelineIntegration into masterplanning Conducted risk analysisAirport design handbook includes specific requirement forfuture climate factorsStandards for buildings including climate adaptationIntegrated adaptation planning into airport master planAssessment Conducted vulnerability assessment for transport infrastructurein SpainAssessmentProgress review UK’s key infrastructure providers are required to submitadaptation plans and progress reports under the ClimateChange Act ickGlasgowHeathrowManchesterStanstedAIRPORTS’ RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING CLIMATEwww.aci.aero 5
ACI Policy Brief - September llInuvikCambridge BayAssessment Conducted vulnerability assessment with 30-year projectedtrend in climate conditionsIqaluitAssessmentInfrastructure Upgrade Permafrost vulnerability assessment conductedRealignment of taxiway alpha based on recurring frost heaves,and geological and climate modelingToronto PearsonAssessment Conducted vulnerability assessment for selected storm waterinfrastructureBarnstableAssessment Cape Cod commission conducted vulnerability assessment forcritical transport assets including airports to sea level rise, 2015Boston LoganDesign Guideline Launched FAA Sustainability Master Plan Pilot Program, 2013Developed ‘Floodproofing Design Guide’, 2014JFKDesign GuidelineInfrastructure Upgrade Adopted design guidelines for climate resilienceInstallation of tide gatesLaGuardiaDesign GuidelineInfrastructure Upgrade Adopted design guidelines for climate resilienceReplaced damaged electrical substation placing it well abovethe 100-year flood elevationNewark LibertyDesign GuidelineInfrastructure Upgrade Adopted design guidelines for climate resilienceTerminal A project will be required to adopt the Port Authority’sDesign Guidelines for Climate ResilienceOaklandAssessment Conducted vulnerability assessment, resilience study, esp.against rising tidesPhiladelphiaAssessmentInfrastructure Upgrade Vulnerability assessment conductedIntegrated climate change issues into strategic planning andoperational activitiesElectrical substations upgradedUSANorthAmerica San DiegoInfrastructure Upgrade Designed and installed demo project for pervious andpermeable pavement to drain storm waterConducted vulnerability assessmentSan FranciscoAssessmentDesign Guideline Vulnerability assessment conductedDeveloped resilience planning, design, and constructionguidelineSeattle-TacomaIntegration to masterplanning Workshops for vulnerability identificationadaptation planning into airport master planStewartInfrastructure Upgrade Installed permeable pavement to drain storm waterAIRPORTS’ RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING CLIMATEwww.aci.aeroandintegrate6
ACI Policy Brief - September 2018ANNEX C. CASE STUDIESNORWAYWetter and wilder weatherPreparing for more water at Norwegian airportsIn Norway, a warmer, more volatile, and wetterclimate with wide regional and local variationsis expected. Increased precipitation and freakrains challenge the drainage of runways, aprons,buildings and other infrastructure. Extremeweather events and natural disasters will be morefrequent, resulting in serious physical and financialdamage without proper adaptation planning.Avinor, the operator of Norway’s 45 airports,has been looking systematically into climateadaptation since the turn of the century. Most ofAvinor’s airports are scattered along the ruggedNorwegian coastline, with several runwaysless than 4 meters above sea level. When newlegislation was introduced in 2006, requiring safetyareas at the sides and ends of runways at severalairports to be expanded, theory had to be turnedinto practice. The seabed close to the runwaysin question was very deep in some places. Thisrequired looking into projections for future sealevels, wind directions, wave directions and – insome instances – the underwater topographyto calculate the size, shape and amount of rocksneeded to make robust fillings which would beable to withstand future storms.coastal runways and strengthened requirementsfor potential runways – they now have to beestablished at least 7 meters above sea level.Also, through the establishment of standards forbuildings, it is expected that new infrastructureprojects will have a greater emphasis on climateadaptation. An example of this is the projectplanning work for a new airport in Bodø, whichstarted in 2017.Avinor’s approach to climate adaptation startsfrom the very beginning of planning, fromselecting materials and conducting capacityassessments. Its experience also shows thatminor adaptation investments in pre-planned and/or ongoing projects can not only have a positiveimpact on punctuality and regularity, but also saveon future resources.A comprehensive risk assessment of all Avinorairports, connected navigation systems andsurface access to the airports was undertaken in2013-14. During the planning phase of the terminalexpansion at Oslo Airport and the related workon the apron, for example, it was revealed thatthe new drainage systems needed 50% addedcapacity compared to the 1990s when the airportwas constructed. It was also discovered that thebatteries for some of the navigation equipmentwere placed on the floor at airports at risk offlooding.To ensure lessons learned are used andembedded, a procedure was developed fordimensioning criteria for safety areas close to thesea, as well as a set of guidelines for low-lyingAIRPORTS’ RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING CLIMATEwww.aci.aero7
ACI Policy Brief - September 2018BRISBANEPreparing for sea-level rise yet minimizing costsof airport developmentRecognizing the potential risks and impacts fromclimate change and given the vital importanceof the infrastructure and its long-term operatinglife, Brisbane Airport Corporation (BAC)implemented a ‘Climate Change AdaptationPlan’ to detail potential vulnerability to climatechange and corresponding actions to mitigatebased on current modeling and research.Among others, sea-level rise, increasedfrequency of cyclonic events, increasingdrought durations, more frequent occurrencesof extreme heat days, and warmer wintersand summers are identified as key risks toBrisbane airports. Particularly, a sea-level riseof approximately 0.14m (0.09-0.18m) from2005 to 2030 is expected under every climatechange scenario.To address this issue, BAC has implementeddetailed flood and drainage planning whichrequired Minimum Design Levels (MDLs) forall new green-field developments. The MDLsprimarily address a critical flood threat of 1in 100 year cyclonic storm tidal surge event,without relaxation for land use or operationalrisk. As a result, even remote carparks weresubject to this high standard, increasing thepotential costs of construction.Given the situation, BAC adopted a valueengineering approach to balance the cost andvalue, and improve the project’s viability. Anumber of measures was taken accordingly: areduction in the design life of the project from100 years to 50 years; relocation of a floodconveyance drain out of the Auto Mall site;utilization of man-made bunding afforded bythe surrounding perimeter road network; andinstallation and closure of flood/tidal gates inroad culverts in combination with a series offlood-storage basins within the site.These measures significantly reduced the AutoMall’s MDLs by 0.8m, resulting in a reductionof 400,000 cubic metres of fill and 1 millionlinear metres of wick drains originally requiredover the 51-hectare site. The revised estimatedproject cost was reduced to 85 millionAustralian dollars – almost one third decreasefrom original estimate – on top of the increasein leasable area of 1.5 hectares, restoringthe project’s economic viability. Additionalenvironmental benefit would be achieved asthe volume of required fill decreased, not tomention the mitigated risks of climate changeand adverse weather conditions.Such strict design regulation affected theplanning of a flagship project of BAC to developan Auto Mall that delivers a multi‑purpose autoretailing hub in Brisbane airport’s green-fieldland. Initially, the Auto Mall design employedstandard MDLs, which led to an economicallyinfeasible estimated budget of 125 millionAustralian dollars, with the costs of filling andsurcharging representing 60% of the totalbudget.AIRPORTS’ RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING CLIMATEwww.aci.aero8
ACI Policy Brief - September 2018HONG KONGRapid response and recovery from adverse weatherAirport Authority Hong Kong (AAHK) has beenworking closely with the airport community tostrengthen its ability to prepare for and respond topotential weather disruptions. Prior to the onsetof extreme weather, AAHK liaises closely withthe Hong Kong Observatory (HKO) and Air TrafficControl (ATC) to assess the potential impact andprepare for critical contingency measures.Based on the weather information from HKOand advice from ATC on runway capacity,AAHK may trigger the Flight ReschedulingControl System (FRCS) to handle the airlines’rescheduling requests, with a view to quicklyresuming normal airport operations in an orderlymanner once the extreme weather has abated.The Airport Emergency Centre (AEC) may also beactivated for multi-agency coordination in supportof the FRCS activity and contingency arrangement
an airport’s resiliency plan. The work on climate-change adaptation and resilience should include operational considerations on safety and security, and also legal, environmental, financial . Preparing for more water at Norwegian airports In Norway, a warmer, more volatile, and wetter climate with wide regional and local variations
approaches to climate change adaptation. By adopting this framework, organisations can self-identify their own level of adaptation readiness and seek to enhance it. Keywords: climate change adaptation; extreme weather; adaptation framework; adaptation pathways; re
FRM:SG2.SP2 Establish Resilience Budgets FRM:SG2.SP3 Resolve Funding Gaps FRM:SG3 Fund Resilience Activities FRM:SG3.SP1 Fund Resilience Activities FRM:SG4 Account for Resilience Activities ; FRM:SG4.SP1 Track and Document Costs FRM:SG4.SP2 Perform Cost and Performance Analysis FRM:SG5 Optimize Resilience Expenditures and Investments
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the weight of airport and air navigation services charges on airline expenses. Overall, airports were profitable in 2005 judging from the income/expense ratios at the global and regional levels. The income of all sample airports exceeded expenses by a ratio of 121 per cent, meaning that out of US 10.00 earned, airports spent US 8.26.
the 15,000 U.S. airports are private or military fields and not available for public use. Of the roughly 6,500 civil airports open to the public, almost 90 percent are used exclusively by small GA aircraft. The remaining 780 airports (about 5 percent of all U.S. airports) are serve
1 Key Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation—Fossil Fuel Extraction and Transport 10 2 Key Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation—Thermal Power 14 3 Temperature Effect on Nuclear Power Efficiency 15 4 Key Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation—Nuclear Power 18 5 Key Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation—Hydropower 24 .
Climate change adaptation (CCA) approaches taken by a country or region is specific to its context and adaptation needs and could include the following: hard, engineered infrastructure-based investments (i.e. sea walls); community-based adaptation (CBA) and/or the use of nature-based solutions such ecosystem-based adaptation approaches (EbA).
8.2 Structure of DNA DNA structure is the same in all organisms. 8.3 DNA Replication DNA replication copies the genetic information of a cell. 8.4 Transcription Transcription converts a gene into a single-stranded RNA molecule. 8.5 Translation Translation converts an mRNA message into a polypeptide, or protein. 8.6 Gene Expression and Regulation
