Modern Electronic Packaging Technology

M. G. BEVAN AND B. M. ROMENESKOAlthough most circuit boards have sufficient free airconvection to safely dissipate heat from the devicepackage, some do not because of high componentdensities or high heat generation from power transistors, or because they operate in the vacuum of space.In these situations, special features must be incorporated to increase heat removal from the component.3 Aswith personal computers, fans work well in many terrestrial environments, increasing heat transfer approximately an order of magnitude over free convection.4In a vacuum, however, it may be necessary to improvethe thermal path between the device package and substrate. This may be accomplished by filling the gapsbetween them with a thermally conductive material.Thermal resistance may be lowered across the substrateby bonding a metal heat spreader to it to improve heatflow to the surrounding box.In addition to component temperature, the mechanical environment may reduce the reliability of the electronic circuit. Specifically, factors such as vibration andshock, along with temperature changes of the system,induce forces that can break components and causefatigue failure of leads or solder joints. By modeling, thepackaging engineer can identify these potential problems early in the design stage and implement designmodifications to mitigate these forces.Over the circuit’s lifetime, the thermal stresses onthe assembly are frequently more destructive than thosecreated by shock and vibration. In the assembly ofelectronic packages and circuit substrates, a variety ofmaterials are bonded together with adhesives or solders.Because of the dissimilar thermal expansion of thesematerials, temperature changes generate forces at bondinterfaces. For stiff materials, these forces may be sufficiently large to cause fracture or fatigue failure. Giventhe prevalence of problems caused by temperaturecycling in the aerospace industry, spacecraft environmental stress screening performed by APL includesboth temperature cycling and thermal shock tests toscreen for potential problems.Prevention of temperature cycling damage usuallyrequires attention to design or material selection. Onecommon solution is to place an intermediate soft orspring-like material between the two high-modulusmaterials. The intermediate material absorbs the straindifferences between the adjacent materials, reducingthe overall stress. An example of this is the Tesserachip-scale package (CSP),5 where silicone rubber isused between the low-expansion silicon device and thehigher-expansion flex circuit. Alternative solutionsinclude replacing high-modulus materials with lowmodulus materials or improving the match in the coefficients of thermal expansion.Temperature-induced damage may be particularlysevere when using polymers near their glass transitiontemperature, Tg. Cooling a polymer below this level24increases the elastic modulus of the polymeric materialby several orders of magnitude, making the polymermuch more stiff and brittle. Although going below theTg does not damage the material, the change in modulus, coupled with its dimensional change, can causeunexpected fracture and fatigue. Concern for this failure mode has driven the APL Space Departmentto switch conformal coatings used on printed circuitboards from Solithane 113/300 (Tg –10 C) to Uralane 5750 (Tg –65 C) (G. Arakaki, personal communication, Mar 1990; also see Ref. 6).In oceanic environments, exposure to corrosion canseverely affect the performance and reliability of acircuit. Moisture, in the form of saltwater or condensing humidity, promotes corrosion of electronic circuits.Corrosion products may form between adjacent electrical conductors, creating an electrical short betweenthem and interfering with overall circuit performance.In addition, corrosion may dissolve conductors, therebysevering the electrical path. The design engineer mayincorporate design features to slow or prevent corrosion, such as conformal coating and encapsulation ofthe circuit boards.System Partitioning and ModelingAfter defining the top-level circuit, its environmental requirements, and its physical constraints, the system is partitioned into subsystems and components.Then, packaging engineers develop detailed designsthat satisfy the requirements of the subsystems. At thispoint modeling is often used to predict the thermal andmechanical behavior of the system so that shortcomings in the packaging designs can be identified beforefabrication begins.Partitioning breaks down a system into logical elements, usually organized by function, testing needs, andphysical size. Additional design considerations thataffect partitioning may include standard circuit boardsizes, thermal management, and available space. Partitioning is frequently organized by electrical function toaid in testability, such as having one circuit card dedicated to power supply or to data communications.Careful partitioning of the electronic circuit simplifiestesting significantly.In early Terrier missiles, the electronic componentswere hand wired, part by part, to the airframe.7,8 As aresult, the assembled missiles frequently failed acceptance tests because of a multitude of problems. The lackof functional subdivision made testing, troubleshooting, and repair difficult and time-consuming. Improvedmissile designs partitioned the circuits into subsystems(e.g., attitude control, telemetry, fusing), making themissile easier to assemble, test, and repair. This samefunctional division concept applies to the differentlevels of packaging.JOHNS HOPKINS APL TECHNICAL DIGEST, VOLUME 20, NUMBER 1 (1999)

MODERN ELECTRONIC PACKAGING TECHNOLOGYOther issues besides testing drivethe partitioning decisions. Partitioning usually accommodates thenormal manufacturing sequence tominimize handling and cross-contamination. Systems may requireadditional volume and features toallow for repair, or they may bepartitioned to minimize the amountof circuitry in an adverse environment. For example, on spacecraft,even though the sensors are exposed to the space environment,the boxes containing most of thesupport electronics are placed under thermal blankets to protectthem from the temperature extremes and temperature cycling encountered in space.Analytical modeling is an essential tool in the partitioning and development of reliable electronicpackaging designs. Modeling offerssignificant cost and schedule savings for complex systems, particularly those incorporating expensiveand long lead-time subassemblies.Using specialized software, electrical modeling can be performed tosimulate circuit performance. Themechanical and thermal behaviorof the system can be modeled usingfinite element methods9 duringpower cycling, temperature cycling, and shock and vibration testing. By doing so, problems can beidentified and fixed, with minimalimpact on cost and schedule, beforeany hardware is fabricated.Figure 2 shows how modelingcan predict problems before assembly. Figure 2a is a schematic illustration of the full signal translatorcircuit board. Figures 2b and c illustrate the results of thermal and mechanical modeling. Thermal modeling predicts the temperaturedistribution across the board. Figure2b shows that the ambient temperature must be kept at least 38 Cbelow the critical junction temperature of the upconverter. The mechanical analysis in Fig. 2c showsthe deflection of the assembledprinted wiring board under a sinusoidal vibration. The software not(a)Primary side(b)Secondary sideDownconverter(400 mW)250-mW T08can componentTemperaturerise ( C)37Upconverter34(800 mW)3275-mW T0829can components26242118161310852(c)Maximum deflectionFigure 2. Modeling is used to predict problems before assembly. (a) Part locations on thefront and back of a full signal translator (FST) circuit. (b) Thermal model of the FST showingpredicted component and substrate temperature (and its distribution over ambient conditions). (c) Mechanical modeling showing first-mode deflection of the FST board in vibration;the mass of the upconverter causes most of the deflection.JOHNS HOPKINS APL TECHNICAL DIGEST, VOLUME 20, NUMBER 1 (1999)25

M. G. BEVAN AND B. M. ROMENESKOonly predicts the maximum deflection, it also predictsthe distribution of the deflection across the board, accounting for variations in mass and specific locationsof mounting points. By knowing the deflection locations and magnitudes at the design stage, additionalstiffeners and mounting points may be incorporated inthe design before the hardware is built.Once the hardware is built, the thermal model isverified by measuring the temperature at critical locations. Since measuring deflection during vibration issomewhat difficult, strain or acceleration measurements obtained via gauges and accelerometers, respectively, may be used to validate the mechanical behaviorof a model.DEVICE PACKAGINGThe first or lowest level of packaging is semiconductor device packaging. Not long ago, the selection ofpackage styles was limited. The dual-inline package(DIP) dominated the semiconductor market and represented the majority of electronic packages sold. Today, with the drive toward miniaturization, combinedwith the lack of a clearly superior miniature package,many distinct package styles are available (Fig. 3),ranging from traditional DIP to chip-on-board (COB).They also range in price and area of substrate requiredfor installation, each reflecting a different testing, assembly, and performance optimum.The primary motives for packaging the device beforeassembly onto a circuit board are to allow for completetesting and to protect the device from contamination.Without packaging, testing of bare devices is expensiveand difficult because of the tiny dimensions involved.When packaged, a device has far less stringent handlingrequirements than a bare device. Bare silicon devicesmust be handled cautiously in a clean-room environment. Soldering and normal handling during assemblyleave contamination that often causes corrosive failureof unprotected devices. Improper handling easilydamages the tiny wire interconnections on devices. Forthese reasons devices are usually packaged before testing and further assembly.The design of the device packages is driven by manyfactors, including the number of leads and their routingon the substrate as well as the ability to dissipate theheat generated by the device. The external lead geometry must meet the customer’s circuit board design constraints, assembly needs, and cost requirements. To conserve the space on a circuit board, customers frequentlywant the device in the smallest package possible.Smaller packages permit significant system miniaturization. Figure 4 shows how smaller packages may have thesame number of leads as larger packages but cover aconsiderably smaller substrate area. However, miniaturization of packages frequently results in increased costsof assembly.The redesign of the Glacier spaceborne imager builtby the APL Space Department exemplifies how changing component packaging can reduce overall systemsize. The imager was an existing circuit design that wasrepackaged using several new packaging technologies(see the article by Le et al., this issue). By stackingdynamic random-access memory vertically, about a 5:1reduction was realized in the number of packages, witha corresponding reduction in substrate area. Attachingbare, unpackaged devices directly to the substrate instead of packaged devices contributed to further miniaturization. However, these savings came at a price.Stacked memory chips are more expensive than separately packaged devices. Also, attaching unpackageddevices introduces a host of potential problems: unpackaged and incompletely tested parts create an increased amount of rework, increased rework difficulty,additional costs associated with encapsulating the device after attachment, and reliability unknowns foundwith any new assembly method.10Device Packaging ProcessesA variety of processes are used in device packaging.These processes create a package that shields the diefrom contamination and damagewhile electrically connecting itto the exterior. One of the mostcritical processes is the electricalinterconnection of the device tothe leads. This can be achievedthrough, for example, wire bonding, tape-automated bonding(TAB), and flip-chip soldering.11Historically, wire bonding has beenthe dominant method of interconnection. When a wire bond is012345made, the wire bonding machineCentimeterswelds one end of the wire to theFigure 3. Some components available today are (clockwise from lower left) a 44-pin Jdevice and the other end to theleaded plastic quad flatpack (PQFP), 20-pin thin small-outline package, 84-pin J-leadedsubstrate or lead frame. Wire bondsPQFP, 208-pin QFP, 100-pin QFP, and 40-pin dual-inline package.26JOHNS HOPKINS APL TECHNICAL DIGEST, VOLUME 20, NUMBER 1 (1999)

MODERN ELECTRONIC PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY 0.001 per connection for wirebonding.12The TAB method is an alternative to wire bonding and flip-chipbonding. It incorporates the bonding region with the lead frame fanout. A TAB structure typically begins as a thin laminate of copper ona polyimide film carrier. The conductors are etched out of the copperto form the electrical interconnection between the chip and the outside. The polyimide holds the copper conductors in place to facilitaterapid assembly. TAB technologyuses several metallurgical coatingsfor conductors and bonding areas.Methods of connecting the TAB tothe chip include therm

interconnection, thermal management, and mechanical and environmental protection. Each packaging level reflects a trade-off among many interrelated factors including design requirements, economics, and manufacturing infrastructure. (Keywords: Electronic components, Electronic packaging, Packaging design, Packaging levels.)