Ethnic And Cultural Diversity By Country

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Ethnic and Cultural Diversity by CountryAuthor(s): James D. FearonSource: Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Jun., 2003), pp. 195-222Published by: SpringerStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40215943 .Accessed: 24/10/2013 17:24Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at ms.jsp.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Economic Growth.http://www.jstor.orgThis content downloaded from 171.65.249.4 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 17:24:57 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

JbJLwVJournalofEconomicGrowth,8, 195-222,2003in The Netherlands.Manufactured 2003 KluwerAcademicPublishers.Ethnicand CulturalDiversityby Country*JAMES D. evaluation,programsempirical**Ethnicandis a ptualgroup,"however,concept.groupsthatmadeup at least1 percentoftheI presenta listof822 ethnicgroupsin thea measureofethnicfractionalizationintheearly1990s.I comparecountrypopulationthatuses thestructuralan indexof culturalfractionalizationusedmeasure.I also egroupsin a country.languagesas a L classification:05, D71. Introductionrateor levelof publicgoodeconomicgrowthlowera country'sDoes ethnicdiversityAlesinaetal.andLevineandas(1997) claim?Are more(1997)Easterlyprovision,dividedstatesmorecivil war prone?Less (or more)likelyto experienceethnicallyMorelikelyto havehighlyfractionalizedor elorsystemspartytheethnicthosethatdo ldataissuchandbeforeindifferentcollected,we needa mesetofcountries.aand practicalproblemsinvolvedin constructingThis groups(Sections2 and3) hadatleast1tocarryoutthetask(Sections4-8). Restrictingeffortand "ethnoreligious"I822ethnicintheof1990s, identifypopulationpercent skedinthecountrychosenindividualsbe listedmostoftenifrandomlyI lackthe"whatare themainethnic(or racialor ascriptive)groupsin thiscountry?"Iandhavenotdoneso. Forlackofsomethingtocarryoutsucha nnualMeeting1, esearch(SESbygrantsresearchassistanceI wishto thankForexcellent9876477and SES-9876530)and theCarnegieCorporation.I also ukoSuga,andNikolayMarinov.Maimone,whichis tprojecton civilconflict.helpfulThis content downloaded from 171.65.249.4 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 17:24:57 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

JAMESD. FEARON196as morecountry-specificworkinprogress,tobe improvedshouldbe viewedas a continualtobearcase bycase.oractualsurveydata,is broughtexpertise,Section6 proposesa simplewayto use theSection5 presentsstatistics.descriptiveas opposedto andifferacross countries,data to representhow edon yin 1964.In Section8, 1 use hatuses a measureof thestructuralto constructan indexof culturalfractionalizationbetweenlanguagesto take into accountthe aBelarusand Cyprushave somewhatFor instance,groupscountry.in cturaldistancebetweenlanguagesproxyUsingthe culturalfractionalizationmeasureattemptsto take such culturaldifference,intoaccount.proximity1.1. RelationtoExistingWorkwascarriedoutbya teamofAs vietethnographersintheearly1960s,andpublishedas sand populationfigureshas been employedby lization."2concerningtheimplicationsof ethnicdiversity,suchas Easterlyand Levine'sworkon economichaveemployedthismeasure.The Sovietteammainlyusedlanguageto definegrowth,butsometimesincludedgroupsthatseemto be lo-Canadianslistedin theUnitedStates).atMorerecently,TedR. Gurrandhiscollaboratorshavedevelopeda listof"minoritiesrisk" in 115 countries,arrayof variablescodinggroupalong witha -Nresearchon the correlatesand rebellion.of iteriaforUnfortunately,groupsjudged"at risk"sampleinoneormoreoffourways- icaboutthesephenomena.ofThedifficultyis thesameas thatoftryingto lookingonlyatelitecolleges.Ifweconsidervariationon the independentoppressedor disadvantagedgroups,we are truncatingtodetecta problemin minoritiesat risk(MAR) is one ofthemotivationsforthepresentstudy.Alesinaet al. (2002) attemptto distinguishbetweenethnic,linguistic,and uctmeasuresofcountries,groups ethnic,linguistic, religiousAlthoughand "linguistic"groupsare distinguished(as eir"ethnic" measurelook broadlysimilarto thoseforthe measureThis content downloaded from 171.65.249.4 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 17:24:57 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

ETHNICSTRUCTUREAND CULTURALDIVERSITY AROUNDTHE WORLD197here.Roeder(2002)hasmadeavailablea seriesoffractionalizationmeasuresconstructedon Sovietethnographicfor1961and 1985basedalmostentirelysources;his measuresI havenotseenappeartobe isestimates.thegrouplistthatunderlies2. yrigidshouldbe stleaningsAnyoneIt rapidlycountries.3becomesclearthatonetocode ' 'ethnicgroups"in manydifferentmustmakeall mannerof borderline-arbitrarydecisions,and thatin manycases theresimplyis no singlerightanswerto thequestion"Whatare theethnicgroupsin thisaboutthecontingent,or racial)groups?Take,forexample,1towithatleastof ngthings- ories, getpopulation.4andAsian- andan overnmentlistfortheUnitedStates?Whynotdeclaresis "nota race." Is thistherightemphaticallyHispanicinto PuertoRican Americans,Cuban Americans,MexicandisaggregatebetweenAraband so on, or likewiseforAsian?5Whynot distinguishAmericans,Germanandso ategories,shouldwe use the eld,doesSomaliahavea rdetailedat whatlevelin theextremelyto themajorclans?If thelatter,correspondingof clanandsubclando we ttitudesofthepopulationa largemajoritycould,iftheywished,oneselfas "Arab" lack,mightdependent.inonecontext,butas a Dinkain another?Southernerbutof xplicitdefinitionto see thatit couldnotplausiblysolve all of them.For example,anyit is importantthat"Hispanic"is an "is notisprimafacieimplausible.thesettotheconceptof "ethnicgroup"is suchthattherecanbe multipleways specifyall of whichincludemore-or-lessof ethnicgroupsin a country,equallyvalid "ethnicgroups."forsocial scienceresearchthatuseshas an importantThis observationimplicationThis content downloaded from 171.65.249.4 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 17:24:57 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

198JAMESD. FEARONmeasuresof ethnicdiversityto explain outcomessuch as economic growthor politicalviolence. If thereare multipleplausibleways of listinga country's"ethnicgroups," wemustbe carefulthatwe do not,in effect,choose thecodingthatbestsupportsourtheory,afterthe fact. Somalia was viewed by the Soviet ethnographersin 1960 as highlyhomogenous,a nationof ethnicSomalis sharingreligion,language,and customs.Thiswas a perfectlyplausible codingthenand it remainsso today.Since thecivil war of the1990s,however,analystsseekingto explainpoorprioreconomicgrowthor thewar itselfwouldbe drawnto arguethatSomalia is highlyethnicallyfractionalizedalong clan lines,and thus a good example of the propositionthat ethnic heterogeneitycauses pooreconomic performanceand civil strife.DesignatingSomalia as highlyfractionalizedisnot implausibleeither,whetherfor 1960 or 1990. Or considerBotswana,a case oftenused to supportthe argumentthat "Africa's growthtragedy" is explained by ethnicWithits large Tswana ethnicgroup,Botswana can be plausiblycoded asheterogeneity.homogeneousby Africanstandards,and its economy has performedvery well. YetBotswana's ethnic structureis fundamentalysimilar to Somalia's- the Tswana aredivided into eight subtribesthatare socially and politicallyconsequential.If forsomereason Botswana's economyhad done poorlyover the last 30 years,and if it had seensignificantinternalfightingalong triballines, it would have been viewed ex post asconfirmationof the "regularity"thatethnicdiversitymakesforlow growthand a greaterriskof civil conflict!So what can be done? Many of the problematiccases noted above have a commonorigin:Whereto locate the "ethnicgroup" whenthereare two groups,and groupB is asubsetof groupA? One approachis to avoid a onsin thestructureof thedata. That is, we mightcode multiple"levels" ofethnicgroups.In dformlevel 1,a disaggregationVietnameseAmerican,by countryof originlevel 2 (Mexican-American,etc.), and so on. FollowingScarrittand Mozaffar(1999), I partiallybuild such structureintothe grouplists forsubSaharanAfrica,wherethisissue is particularlycommonanddifficult.But formanypurposes,such as producinga cross-nationalmeasureof ethnicdiversity,we will wanta singlelistof groupsfora country.It is notevidentthatthe"levels" wouldcorrespondacross countries,makingit sensibleto compute"level 1 fractionalization,""level 2 fractionalization,"etc. Moreover,sets and subsetsare nottheonlyproblemweencounter.Should Mexico be divided between"indigenous" and "mestizo/white,"orshould"white" be brokenout?Or ifwe are listinghyphenatedAmericansfortheUnitedStates,do we include,say,"GermanAmericans,"even ifthisis at besta vague categoryratherthana groupin thesense of a set ofpeople who recognizeand feelmotivatedto acton thebasis of thismembership?Implicitin the idea of an ethnicgroup is the idea thatmembersand non-membersand anticipatethatsignificantactionsare orcould be conditionedrecognizethedistinctionon it. So it is naturaland perhapsnecessarythatthe "rightlist" of ethnicgroupsforaas themostsociallyrelevantethniccountrydependon whatpeople in thecountryidentifygroupings.I adoptthisapproachforthelistdiscussedbelow,in ardfor"the rightlist" thatI am seekingwouldbe definedby aprocedurelike thefollowing:This content downloaded from 171.65.249.4 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 17:24:57 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

ETHNICSTRUCTUREAND CULTURALDIVERSITY AROUNDTHE WORLD1991. Randomlysample a largenumberof people in thecountry.2. Ask each of themto listthemajoror mainethnicgroupsin thecountry.3.of the ethnicgroupsin theShow themor read a list of manypossible formulationsand ask themto say of t (3), askingthemto say of whichgroupson the listmostotherpeople in thecountrywould considerthemto be members.in (3) accordingto how strongly5. Ask themto ththeimportantto you," or some suchgroup (e.g.,identifylanguage).Such a surveycould be ructinga list of ethnicgroups by country(for which I would expect to analyze responsestoquestion2). It could be used to assess the degree of social consensuson what are thehighin manycases. If takenatcountry's"ethnicgroups,"whichmightnotbe particularlyofthebeusedtoinitcouldstudy politicaloreconomicdeterminantsmultiplepoints time,element of their"situational ethnicity,"factorsthat lead people to see this-or-thattimes(Laitin, 1998; Posner,at different"identityrepertoire"as moreor less importantRankingsby importancein question 5 could allow a more subtle andforthcoming).andnuanced mappingof levels of ethnicidentityand possibilitiesfor reformulationbetweenanswersto questions3 and 4 could allow an inquirycoalitions.The differencesand objectiveassessmentsof ethnicityintogaps betweensubjectiveunderstandings(e.g.,as a race,buthow oftenwould way?).self-identifyWithoutsurveydata of thissort,we are forcedto reviewexistinglistsand secondarysourcesto applythisstandardas bestwe can. The mainsourcesemployedare dicussedinSection4.Beforeproceeding,I stresstwo pointsthatfollowfromthe observationthatwhattheethnicgroupsin a countryare dependson whatthepeople in thecountrythinktheyare at agiven time.First,it cannotbe assumed, withoutargument,thatethnicdistinctionsarewholly exogenous to otherpolitical, economic, and social variables of interest.Forcould oor niclinesactseeandtoformerlyalongpeopleBy contrast,robusteconomic growthmightlead to the downplayingofunimportant.ethnicdivisionsand a greateremphasis on nationalidentity.If Botswana seems moreethnicallyhomogeneousthanSomalia does at thispoint,it may be thatthisis in partaresultratherthana cause ofeconomicgrowth.Likewise,manyexamples,suchas Somalia,morestronglyshowthatpoliticalviolencecan lead orforcepeople to identifyalongethnicwere less salient(Kaufmann,1996; Fearon and Laitin,2000b). Thislines thatformerlyin 1960,suchas theAtlasforusinga listofethnicgroupsconstructedmaybe an argumentNarodovMira, to studysubsequenteconomicgrowthor politicalconflict.6Second, we cannot use the list to ask empiricallywhy some possible ethnicgroupsThis content downloaded from 171.65.249.4 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 17:24:57 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

200JAMESD. FEARONbecomeactualethnicgroupsat a giventime,orwhyethnicas opposedto has hdo ndblackdo in theUnitedStatesat richandpoor.7Obviously,ifa criterioninthelistis thatseethecategoryinquestionas anethnicthenwedonothaveapeopleinthecountrygroup,a listofsampleof all hypotheticallypossibleethnic(or other)groups.Nonetheless,"actual" or existingethnicgroupswouldbe a prerequisiteforsucha study.The trickwouldbe ups.Sinceitis notclearthatthepopulationis well-defined,eveninof "all possibleethnicgroupsin a ary.8approach3. EthnicityI arguedin Section2 lfimplyalistofforaadefinitionwouldbe usefulto ddressphenomenontrying capture,questionslikethefollowing.and Catholicsin NorthernProtestantsIreland,or BosnianSerbsand Muslims,to beincludediftheonlysignificantculturaldifferenceis ofa areproblematicand/or(FearonandLaitin,2000a).It is ybutthatare often"ethnic,"or of groupsthatdo notfitthedefinitiondescribedas "ethnic."FearonandLaitin(2000a)attempttodeal are"ethnic"intalk.Theyarguethatincommonas "ethnic"everydayspeecha groupmaybe designatedifthegroupis largerthana familyandmembershipinthegroupis teria,theconceptmaybe e(i.e.,haveno "naturalizedas a group).It is o playno necessaryrole in whethera groupcan be describedas "ethnic"intalk.Forexample,' 'Jews"areoftendescribedas anethniceverydaygroupdespitelackinga commonlanguage,universallysharedcustoms,or even commonreligiouspracticeare typicallyincludedin thegroup,and it is contestedwhether(sincenon-believersconversioncan makeone ethnicallyreferredto asJewish).Somaliclansare sdo notseetheclansas culturallydistinctin uageanalysisalso "ethnic"wheninisthereligionnamely,membership groupreckonedthanbypublicconfessionoffaith.In dMuslimson thebasisof local ousfaithIn gThis content downloaded from 171.65.249.4 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 17:24:57 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

ETHNICSTRUCTUREAND CULTURALDIVERSITY AROUNDTHE WORLD20 1make oneselfProtestantor Catholicby adoptingthe methingthatis hardor impossibleto do in Northern- in several ways mo

Ethnic and Cultural Diversity by Country Author(s): James D. Fearon Source: Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Jun., 2003), pp. 195-222

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