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Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungenzum Neuen Testament 2. ReiheHerausgegeben vonJörg Frey, Martin Hengel, Otfried Hofius142ARTIBUS

Timo EskolaMessiah and the ThroneJewish Merkabah Mysticismand Early Christian Exaltation DiscourseMohr Siebeck

TIMO ESKOLA, born 1955; 1981 M.A. theology; 1982-92 Pastor in the Finnish Lutheran Church;1987 B.A. literature; 1992 Dr. theol.; since 1992 New Testament Scholar at the TheologicalInstitute of Finland in Helsinki; since 1998 Docent at the University of HelsinkiDie DeutscheBibliothek-CIP-EinheitsaufnahmeEskola, Timo:Messiah and the throne : Jewish Merkabah mysticism and early Christianexaltation discourse / Timo Eskola. - Tubingen : Mohr Siebeck, 2001(Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament : Reihe 2 ; 142)ISBN 3-16-147641-7978-3-16-157477-1 Unveränderte eBook-Ausgabe 2019 2001 by J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), P.O. Box 2040, D-72010 Tubingen.This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted bycopyright law) without the publisher's written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systemsThe book was printed by Druck Partner Rubelmann GmbH in Hemsbach on non-aging paper andbound by Buchbinderei Schaumann in Darmstadt.Printed in Germany.ISSN 0340-9570

PrefaceAlmost ten years have passed since the days of my doctoral dissertation on theChristology of Romans 1:3-4, published in Finland 1992. The following yearswere spent on an investigation on the soteriology of Paul, treating the themesof theodicy and predestination in Pauline teaching on justification (published inW U N T 2. series 1998). After that project I wished to return to the study ofChristology, since I had been developing earlier ideas by writing articles andgiving lectures on the subject in my capacity as a New Testament scholar at theTheological Institute of Finland (Helsinki), and as a docent at the University ofHelsinki. I had never yet published any of that material in English.When I returned to the subject it soon became apparent, however, that quitemuch had happened in the field of the study of exaltation Christology. Divineagent theory (Hurtado) was quite new when I wrote my dissertation in 19881991. Since then it has gained many adherents in scholarship. Also the angelicinterpretation (Fossum, Segal, Gieschen) has become rather popular.Furthermore, several publications on a messianic interpretation, and on thesignificance of Psalm 110, as well as other books on the divine throne, havemoved the discussion to a new level.All these attempts to explain early exaltation Christology are linked withearly Jewish merkabah mysticism. Therefore, I could not escape the challengeof approaching the subject of resurrection theology in Rom. 1:3-4 and inseveral parallel passages from the point of view of the merkabah-throne. Thisled me to a new investigation of Jewish merkabah texts, as well as to a newstudy of New Testament exaltation passages.The research was once again made possible by a research project of theInstitute, and it became a real source of joy in my life. I am especially indebtedto my colleague, Rev. Eero Junkkaala, General Secretary of the TheologicalInstitute, who has continuously encouraged me in my work. My thanks alsogo to the staff of the Institute, our librarian Erkki Hanhikorpi, as well as to oursecretary, Mrs. Kirsi Sell, who has taken care of many practical matters.Already in my dissertation I expressed my deep gratitude both to Prof. Dr.Peter Stuhlmacher and to Prof. Dr. Martin Hengel for their hospitality duringmy stay in Tübingen when writing my dissertation. Now after several moreyears of work, I wish to renew my thanks while the years have proven that

VIPrefacetheir instructions have provided for a continuing inspiration in my study ofearly Christology.My special thanks go to Prof. Kai Mikkonen at the Faculty of Arts,University of Helsinki. In my studies on literary theory he has patiently guidedm e through the paths of structuralism, post-structuralism, and intertextualcriticism. I hope that the methodological ideas developed in this study will be acredit to this dialogue. I should also like to thank some friends of mine and"fellows" of the Institute: Docent Lauri Thuren (Abo/Joensuu) for hissuggestions and comments, and Prof. Antti Laato (Abo), with whom I havespent hours discussing new literary methods and their application to biblicalstudy.Not least, I am deeply indebted to Mr. Michael Cox, Lie. Theol. (Kerava),Mrs. Virpi Hopkins, M.A., and Mr. Michael Hopkins, B.B.A., M.T.S.,(Helsinki) for their labours in undertaking the language revision of thismanuscript.Finally, I wish to express my sincere thanks to Professors Martin Hengeland Otfried Hofius of Tübingen for their kind acceptance of my study forpublication in this distinguished series, as well as the editorial staff of J . C . B .Mohr (Paul Siebeck) for their highly professional assistance in preparing themanuscript for publication.Timo EskolaTheological Institute of FinlandKaisaniemenkatu 13 A 4. krsFIN-00100 HelsinkiFinlande-mail: timo.eskola@teolinst.fiUnless otherwise indicated, biblical quotations in English are taken from theNew Revised Standard Version.

ContentsPrefaceAbbreviationsVXI Introduction§ 1 Jewish Mysticism and New Testament Exegesis1.1. The relation of merkabah mysticism and early Christology in scholarshipa. M e r k a b a h mysticism in Jewish studiesb. M e r k a b a h mysticism and Christology: early suggestionsc. Angelic interpretationd. The divine agent theorye. The theory of messianic enthronementf. S o m e later developments of the main theories1.2. Setting the task1.3. Problems of methodology: on discourse and meaninga. The contribution of semiotics and semanticsb. T h e contribution of structuralism and narratologyc. The contribution of intertextual criticismd. A linguistic approach and the methodology of Christological study1116791113151717293438II The Heavenly Throne in the Old Testament, Second Temple JewishTheology, and the Pseudepigrapha§ 2 God as King and the Ark of the Covenant as His Throne2.1.2.2.2.3.2.4.TheTheTheTheLord is Kingark as the throne of God in the Old Testamentfunction of the throne in the Temple cultenthronement of the anointed king§ 3 The Throne in Early Jewish Mysticism: the Merkabah3.1. Throne visions in Old Testament prophetic literature3.2. The throne in pre-Christian Jewish literaturea. T h e Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 14)b. Jubileesc. T h e Testament of Levid. Qumrane. The Exagoge of Ezekiel43445055586565717275777986

VIIIContents3.3. Thrones and enthronements in the literature of the C o m m o n Eraa. Similitudes (1 Enoch 37-71)b. Philoc. The Fourth Book of Ezrad. The Testament of Jobe. 2 Enochf. The Apocalypse of Abrahamg. The Ladder of Jacobh. The Ascension of Isaiahi. The Life of Adam and Eve/The Apocalypse of Mosesj. The Testament of Abrahamk. The Testament of Isaac1. 3 Baruchm. Hellenistic synagogue prayer 4n. The Sibylline Oracles, Book 3o. Questions of Ezrap. 3 Enoch919196981001031051071081 111131151161 17118119120§ 4 From Merkabah Mysticism to Christology: Suggestions and Refutations4.1.4.2.4.3.4.4.4.5.4.6.Merkabah mysticism and royal metaphorsIs there an exalted Messiah in merkabah mysticism?Limitations of the angelic interpretationThrone in a cultic settingThrone in eschatological judgment descriptionsConclusions124127137146151154III The Messiah and the Throne in the New Testament ChristologicalDiscourses§ 5 At the Right Hand of God (enthronement discourse)5.1. Psalm 110 and Christology in early Lukan traditions5.2. Paul and merkabah mysticism5.3. Reception of early enthronement Christologyin the letter to the Hebrews and in the Revelation of John§ 6 Resurrection as Enthronement in Rom. 1:3-4 (resurrection discourse)1581601822022176.1. Early tradition and the kerygmatic formula6.2. The formula and the symbolic world of Jewish Christianity6.3. Enthronement theme in the context of resurrection discourse217227244§ 7 Throne as a Place for the Atonement (cultic discourse)2517.1. The throne as a mercy seat7.2. The unity of exaltation and atonement7.3. The emergence of the cultic interpretation251258264§ 8 The Centre of the Last Judgment (judicial discourse)2708.1. Son of Man and his throne8.2. The reception of early judgment descriptions in Paul8.3. Judicial discourse and the problem of polarized eschatology270274277

Contents§ 9 The History of Influence:Enthronement in Jewish Christian Pseudepigrapha9.1. Exalted Christ in the Ascension of Isaiah9.2. Enthroned Davidide in the Sibyllines9.3. Paul and merkabah in the Apocalypse of PaulIX285285289293IV The Nature of Early Enthronement Christology§ 10 Some Problems with the "Theocratic" Theoryof Adoptionist Christology29510.1. The theory of theocratic adoptionism in scholarship10.2. Adoptionism and the Ebionite theory10.3. Defining early Jewish Christianity296299309§11 Main Factors in the Emergence of Christology32211.1.11.2.11.3.11.4.Divine agents and angels?Possible features of a Christian merkabah traditionMerkabah tradition and the search for a "missing link"Semiosis in early Christian theology§ 12 Theocracy, Exaltation Discourse, and Christology12.1. Three enthroned figuresa. Messianic Davidide on the throne of Gloryb. New Melchizedek on the mercy seatc. Son of Man on the judgment seat12.2. Four narratives - four ascent storiesa. The heavenly enthronement of the seed of Davidb. Prince of life conquers deathc. Eternal high priest enters the debird. Eschatological entrée of the messianic judge12.3. Intertextual aspect: Christ as the reigning God on the throne of Conclusion375Bibliography391Index of Ancient Sources415Index of Authors429Index of Subjects434

Abbreviations1. Periodicals, Series, Reference AThANTAThDAzThAnnales Academiae Scientiarum FennicaeArbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des UrchristentumsArbeiten zur Literatur und Geschichte des hellenistischen JudentumsAnchor BibleAnchor Bible DictionaryArbeiten zur Geschichte des Spätjudentums und UrchristentumsAnalecta BiblicaAnte-Nicene FathersAufstieg und Niedergang der römischen WeltAmerican Schools of Oriental ResearchAltes Testament DeutschAbhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen TestamentsActa Theologica DanicaArbeiten zur TheologieBABBBBBRBDRBiblical ArchaeologistBonner Biblische BeiträgeBulletin for Biblical ResearchBlass/Debrunner/Rehkopf, Grammatik des neutestamentlichenGriechischBibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum LovaniensiumBeiträge zur Evangelischen TheologieBeiträge zur historischen TheologieBiblicaBiblischer KommentarBiblischer Kommentar. Altes TestamentBlack's New Testament CommentariesBiblische ZeitschriftBeihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche WissenschaftBeihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche BCB.NTCB.OTCBQCCWJCWCJASCNTConiectanea BiblicaConiectanea Biblica. New Testament SeriesConiectanea Biblica. Old Testament SeriesCatholic Biblical QuarterlyCambridge Commentaries on Writings of the Jewish and ChristianWorld 200 BC to AD 200Christianity and Judaism in Antiquity SeriesConiectanea neotestamentica

AbbreviationsXIDJDDMMRSDiscoveries in the Judaean Desert (of Jordan)Duke monographs in medieval and Renaissance studiesEEThEJEJThEKKEQEvThEWNTETExpTEinfuhrung in die evangelische TheologieEncyclopedia JudaicaEuropean Journal of TheologyEvangelisch-Katholischer KommentarEvangelical QuarterlyEvangelische TheologieExegetisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament, ed. H. Balz, G.SchneiderExpository TimesExpository TimesFzBFRLANTForschung zur BibelForschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen TestamentsGCSGNTGTADie griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei JahrhunderteGrundrisse zum Neuen TestamentGöttinger Theologische ArbeitenHATHNTHRHThKHThSHandbuch zum Alten TestamentHandbuch zum Neuen TestamentHistory of ReligionsHerders Theologischer KommentarHarvard Theological StudiesICCICSIntBInterp.IVPInternational Critical CommentaryIllinois Classical StudiesThe Interpreter's BibleInterpretationInterVarsity JournalJournalJournalKATKEKKommentar zum Alten TestamentKritisch-Exegetischer KommentarLCCLCLLibrary of Christian classicsLoeb Classical Libraryof Biblical Literatureof Jewish Studiesof Religionof Religious Studiesfor the Study of Judaismfor the Study of the New Testamentfor the Study of the New Testament, Supplement Seriesfor the Study of the Old Testamentfor the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Seriesof Semitic Studiesof Theological Studies

XIIAbbreviationsMNTCMSMSSNTSMoffatt New Testament commentaryMonograph SeriesMonograph Series. Society for New Testament ew American CommentaryNeue FolgeNew International Biblical CommentaryNew international commentary on the New TestamentNew International Greek Testament CommentaryNovum TestamentumNeutestamentliche AbhandlungenNeues Testament DeutschNovum testamentum et orbis antiquusNew Testament StudiesNovum Testamentum. SupplementsNew Testament tools and studiesOTLOTPOld Testament ThStUNTSVTSVTPThe Old Testament PseudepigraphaPseudepigrapha veteris testamenti GraeceRevue bibliqueReligion in Geschichte und GegenwartRevue de QumranSociety of Biblical LiteratureSBL Dissertation SeriesSBL Monograph SeriesSBL Sources for Biblical StudySBL Seminar PapersStuttgarter Biblische MonographienStuttgarter BibelstudienStudies in Biblical TheologyScience et espritSuomen eksegeettisen seuran julkaisujaSvensk Exegetisk ArsbokStudies in Judaism in Late AntiquityScottish Journal of TheologySchriften des Neuen TestamentsSociety for New Testament StudiesStudien zum Alten und Neuen TestamentSuomalaisen tiedeakatemian toimituksiaSuomalaisen teologisen kirjallisuusseuran julkaisujaStudies on the texts of the desert of JudahStudia theologica (Lund)Studien zur Umwelt der Neuen TestamentsSupplements to Vetus TestamentumStudia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha

e und Arbeiten zum neutestamentlichen ZeitalterTheologische BüchereiTheologisches Begriffslexikon zum Neuen TestamentTheological Dictionary of the New TestamentTheological Dictionary of the Old TestamentTheologische Existenz heuteTheologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten TestamentTheologische BeiträgeTheologische LiteraturzeitungTheologische RundschauTheological StudiesTheologische WissenschaftTheologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten TestamentTheologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen TestamentTheologische ZeitschriftTheologische RealenzyklopädieTrinity Press InternationalTheological studiesTexte und Studien zum Antiken JudentumTheology TodayTyndale BulletinUSFUTBUniversity of South FloridaUni-TaschenbücherVTVetus TestamentumWBCWTJWMANTWUNTWord Biblical CommentaryWestminster theological journalWissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen TestamentWissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen TestamentZAWZNWZThKZeitschrift für die alttestamentliche WissenschaftZeitschrift für die neutestamentliche WissenschaftZeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche2. Technical and ed Versionconfercolumnaeditors)English TranslationfragmentFestschrift (Studies in Honour of, etc.)Hebrew text of SirachKing James VersionXIII

breviationsSeptuagintMishnah tractatemanuscript(s)Masoretic textfootnoteno dateNew English BibleNew International VersionNew Revised Standard VersionNew Testamentopus citatumOld TestamentRevised Standard Versionverse(s)volume

IIntroduction§ 1 Jewish Mysticism and New Testament ExegesisThe study of New Testament Christology has often learned much from thestudy of Jewish theology, and especially from the study of Jewish mysticismin the Second Temple period and later traditions. When we are attempting tofind a relevant interpretation for exaltation Christology in the New Testament,we need to pay special attention to the exhaustive and inspiring study of Jewishmysticism that has taken place over the last two decades. In this introductorychapter we shall first make a short survey of the history of interpretationconcerning the relation between Second Temple Jewish mystical tradition andearly Christology. In addition, there are certain necessary methodologicalquestions that need to be answered.1.1. The relation of merkabah mysticism and early Christology in scholarshipDid merkabah mysticism influence the development of Christology? Therelation between Jewish mysticism and the emerging Christology of earlyJewish Christianity has interested scholars for a long time. Even thoughmerkabah mysticism itself appears not to be very well known in the area ofNew Testament studies in general, in the history of scholarship we can alreadynow find several different theories explaining that relation. Before proceedingto the definition of the task of this study we shall first treat the major theoriesthat have been proposed as a solution for the basic problem concerning theaforementioned relationship. As a start we need to see how merkabahmysticism has been considered in the area of Jewish studies.a. Merkabah mysticism in Jewish studiesThe concept of merkabah mysticism itself needs some clarification. It isapparent that exaltation Christology has relevant parallels in several themes ofapocalyptic Jewish mysticism, for example in themes such as heavenlyjourneys, ascensions, throne visions and enthronements. In scholarship suchJewish mysticism has most often been defined as merkabah mysticism,because heavenly journeys and throne visions focus on the heavenly

2Messiah and the Thronemerkabah, the throne chariot of God. Throne descriptions have been regardedas a uniting feature for the passages under consideration. In Jewish studies thethrone has further been considered as the main feature of such mysticism. Eventhough merkabah mysticism has often been regarded as a relatively latephenomenon belonging to Hekhalot literature, w e are here interested in its preChristian origins and early forms in N e w Testament times.What is also interesting, is the close relationship of Jewishtraditional Temple-centred faith of Israel. G. Scholem, theTrends in Jewish Mysticism, connected Jewish mysticism toof Jewish faith, i.e. to the worshipping o f God the Kingthrone. 1mysticism to thewriter o f Majorthe main themeson his heavenly"We know that in theperiodof the Second Temple an esoteric doctrine was already taught inPharisaic circles. The first chapter of Genesis, the story of Creation (Maaseh Bereshith). andthe first chapter of Ezekiel, the vision of God's throne-chariot (the 'Merkabah'), were thefavorite subjects of discussion and interpretation which it was apparently consideredinadvisable to make public."Thus it was Scholem who gave the first, and greatly influential, definitionof the nature of early Jewish mysticism: 2"What was the central theme of these oldest of mystical doctrines within the framework ofJudaism? No doubts are possible on this point: the earliest Jewish mysticism is thronemysticism. Its essence is not absorbed contemplation of God's true nature, but perception ofHis appearanceon the throne, as described by Ezekiel, andcognition of the mysteries of thecelestial throne-world. The throne-world is to the Jewish mystic what the pleroma, the'fullness,' the bright sphere of divinity with its potencies, aeons, archons and dominions isto the Hellenistic and early Christian mystics of the period who appear in the history ofreligion under the names of Gnostics and Hermetics."For a time Jewish mysticism was associated with Jewish apocalyptic thatwas popular in the second and first centuries B.C.E. Therefore the writingsand different themes in that tradition were interpreted merely in that rather latecontext. In his innovative study The Dawn of Apocalyptic(1975) P. D.Hanson, however, challenged this view. Hanson investigated the relationshipbetween Jewish apocalyptic eschatology and the prophetic tradition of Israel.3"Our point is this: The origins of apocalyptic cannot be explained by a method whichjuxtaposes seventh- and second-century compositions and then proceeds to account for thefeatures of the latter by reference to its immediate environment. The apocalyptic literature ofthe second century and after is the result of a long development reaching back to pre-exilictimes and beyond, and not the new baby of second-century foreign parents. Not only thesources of origin, but the intrinsic nature of late apocalyptic compositions can be understood1Scholem, Major Trends, 42.2Scholem, Major Trends, 43-44.3 Hanson, The Dawn, 6.

Introduction3only by tracing the centuries-long development through which the apocalyptic eschatologydeveloped from prophetic and other even more archaic native roots."Hanson's conclusion is important for our study of the tradition history ofthe main ideas of merkabah mysticism. We are not dealing with a peculiarsecond century B.C.E. phenomenon, but instead with a "centuries-longdevelopment" of ideas. Therefore, in the present study, we need to take such abackground into consideration.In apocalyptic writings the throne of God is constantly associated with anascent structure. Throne visions occur in a context where a privileged piousone is making a heavenly journey under the guidance of an angel. Thereforethe study of throne mysticism has often focused on such an ascent structure.A.F. Segal first treated the ascent structure in his monograph Two Powersin Heaven (1977), where he investigated a Jewish heresy of a divine heavenlybeing beside God. Even though the analyses were centred on rabbinicwritings, Segal also made some comments on earlier apocalyptic writings andthe New Testament. 4In his famous ANRW article, Heavenly Ascent in Hellenistic Judaism,Early Christianity and their Environment (1980), Segal then made a detailedsurvey of the ascent structure in apocalyptic writings. In this paper Segal statedthat although apocalyptic literature may have many different functions, anunderlying ascent structure behind most writings can be isolated. 5 He paidspecial attention to angelic figures which performed different functions inheaven. Segal also made some direct suggestions concerning the connection ofearly Christology to such an ascent structure, and we shall return to thesestatements later.Even though the golden era of Jewish mysticism is usually thought to havebegun in the first centuries of the Common Era, the data of earlier forms ofmysticism have been well known from the very first studies. Segal, forinstance, investigates the pre-Christian writings of Qumran, 1 Enoch and theTestament of Levi. Thus the scholarly dating of the earliest phases of Jewishmysticism has not essentially changed over the years.In the same year, 1980,/. Gruenwald published an important study entitledApocalyptic and Merkavah Mysticism. Gruenwald first studied various typesof biblical theophany and then listed some of the characteristic features ofthrone visions (here in a somewhat abbreviated form): 6a. God is sitting on a throne;b. He has the appearance of a man;4See e.g. Segal, Two Powers,5 Segal, ANRW6182ff.II 23.2. (1980) 1358.Gruenwald, Apocalyptic,31.

4Messiah and the Thronec. God is sitting in a palace;d. Fire occupies an important position in the vision;e. God is accompanied by angels who minister to Him;/ . The angels recite hymns.It is easy to see that these elements are linked to the Temple theophanies ofthe prophets, thus revealing a cultic context. Further, as Gruenwald notes,these elements "became major components in the mystical visions found inapocalyptic and later on in the Merkavah visions of Hekhalot literature."Gruenwald also investigated apocalyptic writings from 1 Enoch and theApocalypse of Abraham to the Ascension of Isaiah and the Apocalypse ofPaul, detecting the occurrence of those features.Furthermore, Gruenwald paid attention to the reception of merkabahmaterial in a Christian environment. He noted, for example, that in theAscension of Isaiah a text that has undergone Christian redaction, severalfeatures connected the Christian editorial contribution to the underlying Jewishoriginal. Furthermore he concluded, however, that such features might derivefrom Gnostic Christianity. 7 In the Apocalypse of John he found a more"traditional" Jewish teaching. "Although the Apocalypse of John received itsfinal shape some twenty years after the destruction of the Temple, its Merkavahmaterial is nevertheless typical of its Jewish counterpart b e f o r e thedestruction." 8The transcendent nature of Jewish apocalyptic was brought out in thelengthy study The Open Heaven (1982) by Chr. Rowland.9"By the time we reach the apocalyptic writings of the third and second centuries BC and later,we find that a cosmology has developed in which God is enthroned in glory in heaven, andhis activities are carried out among men either by angelic intermediaries or other modes ofdivine operation like the spirit or shekinah. The cosmological beliefs were such that it oftenbecame necessary for anyone who would enter the immediate presence of God to embark on ajourney through the heavenly world, in order to reach God himself."In this transcendent scene, according to Rowland, angelic intermediariesplayed a significant role. Thus the suggestions of Segal concerning theimportance of angelology in the interpretation were taken further. Rowlandfound evidence that the developing angelology "had produced an angelic figureof considerable status, whose position in the heavenly hierarchy set him apartfrom the rest of the angels". Such a belief in an exalted angel "owed much tothe developments of the throne-theophany already inherent in the book of7Gruenwald, Apocalyptic,61 f.8Gruenwald, Apocalyptic,62.9Rowland, Open Heaven, 80.

Introduction5Ezekiel itself'. 1 0 In addition, Rowland suggested that there was anotherdevelopment that took a rather different form. In certain apocalyptic writingsthere appeared an attempt to reinterpret the throne-theophany "by identifyingthe figure on the throne, not with God but with a man exalted to heaven byGod". This was especially the case with the Son of Man ideas of theSimilitudes of Enoch.' 1As the basic features of the "ascent structure" of Jewish mysticism had beeninvestigated, further studies began to make precise the details in this subject. InThe Faces of the Chariot (1988) D. J. Halperin studied early Jewish responsesto the prophet's vision in the book of Ezekiel. Halperin was interested inthrone visions, and one of his main theses was that on the basis of Ezekiel'svision there emerged a "hymnic tradition". This tradition focused on heavenlyworship. The seraphs with other heavenly beings eternally sang "Holy, Holy,Holy" before G o d ' s throne. 1 2 According to Halperin, Jewish mysticismbuilding on such a tradition was of a cultic nature.Therefore, for example in 1 Enoch, the merkabah was located in a heavenlyTemple. Halperin pays attention to the fact that heavenly beings were engagedin a heavenly liturgy. 13"Daniel and Enoch share an image, perhaps drawn from the hymnic tradition of merkabahexegesis (think of the Angelic liturgy), of God surrounded by multitudes of angels. But, inthe Holy of Holies, God sits alone. Even the priests, as Josephus stresses. may not enterthis inner shrine. The angels, barred from the inner house, are the priests of Enoch'sheavenly Temple. The high priest must be Enoch himself, who appears in the celestial Holyof Holies to procure forgiveness for holy b e i n g s . " ' 4Another interesting field of study is naturally the world of the Dead SeaScrolls. Especially the publication of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrificeinspired scholars in the study of mysticism. 15 In 1982 L. Schiffman suggestedin his article that merkabah speculation at Qumran is probably one of the mainsources for merkabah mysticism in general. There are similarities interminology and motifs, even though no mention of a heavenly journey can be10Rowland, Open Heaven, 94, 111.11Rowland, Open Heaven,12Halperin, Chariot, 46, 61.104.13Other detailed studies concerned for example the nature of the heavenly sanctuary inapocalyptic writings, see especially A.J. McNicol's article "The Heavenly Sanctuary inJudaism", JRS 13 (1987) 66-94.It Halperin. Chariot, 81-82.15This can be seen already from the first comments of Strugnell in his article "TheAngelic Liturgy at Qumran", VT suppl. (1960) 318-345.

6Messiah and the Thronefound. 1 6 He also paid attention to the connection between earthly worship andheavenly liturgy. 17Finally C. Newsom 's critical edition of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice(1985) opened the field for scholars in this area. In her analysis Newsom notedthe cultic character of these songs which focus on the heavenly Temple anddescribe the heavenly liturgy of the cherubim in detail. 18In sum, Jewish mysticism is "throne mysticism". It is especially interestedin throne visions. In these visions one can detect an ascent structure, whereprivileged persons are escorted before God's throne of glory in heaven. Somewritings describe a heavenly worship that is located in the heavenly temple.Furthermore, according to certain passages, angelic intermediaries makeservices to God both in heaven and on earth.Even though many Jewish apocalyptic writings derive from the CommonEra and have apparently been subjected to Christian redaction, certain writingsare clearly pre-Christian. Jewish mysticism seems to have a long traditionhistory, and many of the relevant themes for o

II The Heavenly Throne in the Old Testament, Second Temple Jewish Theology, and the Pseudepigrapha §2 God as King and the Ark of the Covenant as His Throne 43 . 2.1. The Lord is King 44 2.2. The ark as the throne of God in the Old Testament 50 2.3. The function o thf e throne in the Temple cult 55 2.4. The enthronement of the anointed king 58

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