C) Temperature ( Precipitation (cm)
ToolsPhysical GeographyThe Water Balance and Water Resources Calculator Excel InternetBecause water is not always naturally available when and where it is needed, we must rearrange waterresources. Chico, CA has a typical summer-dry, winter-wet precipitation pattern (Figure 1). Plants’growing season is typically in summer, when water (as a form of precipitation) is not naturallyavailable in Chico.16Temperature ( C)30142512201081561045200IntroductionPrecipitation (cm)GEOG 101ILab 6Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecPrecipitationTemperatureFigure 1: Monthly mean temperature and monthly total precipitation in Chico, CAThe maintenance of a houseplant, the distribution of local water supplies, an irrigation program on afarm, the rearrangement of river flows—all involve aspects of the water balance and water-resourcemanagement.The water balance is an examination of the hydrologic cycle at a specific site or area for anyperiod of time, including estimation of stream flow, accurately determining irrigation quantity andtiming, and as an important climatic element, that is, the relationship between a given supply of waterand the local demand. A water balance can be established by calculating the total precipitation inputand the total water output.In this lab you will work with a water-balance equation and accounting procedure to determinemoisture conditions for two cities—Indianapolis, IN, and Chico, CA (both lie on the same latitude).Given this data you will prepare graphs that illustrate these water balance relationships. Also, this labexamines the broader issues of water resources in the United States.Section 1Water Balance ComponentsA soil-water budget can be established for any area of Earth’s surface—a continent, country, region,field, or front yard. Key is measuring the precipitation input and its distribution to satisfy the demandsof plants, evaporation, and soil moisture storage in the area considered. Such a budget can examine anytime frame, from minutes to years.Think of a soil-water budget as a money budget: precipitation income must be balanced againstexpenditures of evaporation, transpiration, and runoff. Soil-moisture storage acts as a savings account,accepting deposits and withdrawals of water. Sometimes all expenditure demands are met, and any extra water results in a surplus. At other times, precipitation and soil moisture income are inadequate to meet demands, and adeficit, or water shortage, results.The water balance describes how the water supply is expended. Think of precipitation as incomeand evapotranspiration as expenditure.1
If income (supply) exceeds expenditures (demands), then there is a surplus to account in thebudget.If income (supply) is not enough to meet expenditures (demands), then we need to turn tosavings (a storage account), if available, to meet these demands.When savings are not available, then we must record a deficit of unmet demand.In the water balance these budgetary components are presented as follows:PrecipitationPotential evapotranspirationDeficitSurplusSoil storageSupplyDemandShortagesOversupplySavingsTo understand the water-balance methodology and accounting or bookkeeping procedures, we mustfirst understand the terms and concepts in simple water-balance equation.The objective of the water balance is to account for the expenditure (demand) of precipitation (supply).That is, you will account for the ways in which this supply is distributed: actual water taken by evaporation and plant transpiration, extra water that exits in streams and subsurface groundwater, and recharge or utilization of soil-moisture storage.Figure 2: Visual representation of the water ogy.htmlWater Balance EquationPRECIP supply(POTETdemand–DEFIC)shortage SURPL oversupply STRGEsoil-moistureutilization orrechargeACTETactualevapotranspirationPRECIP (precipitation)POTET(potential evapotranspiration)DEFIC (deficit)ACTET(actual evapotranspiration)rain, sleet, snow, and hail – the moisture supplythe amount of moisture that would evaporate and transpire throughplants if the moisture were available; the amount that would becomeoutput under optimum moisture conditions – the moisture demandthe amount of unsatisfied POTET; the amount of demand that is notmet either by PRECIP or by soil moisture storage – the moistureshortagethe actual amount of evaporation and transpiration that occurs2
POTET – DEFICSURPL (surplus) STRGE(soil moisture storage change)thus, if all the demand is satisfied, POTET will equal ACTET – theactual satisfied demandthe amount of moisture that exceeds POTET, when soil moisturestorage is at field capacity (full) – the moisture oversupplythe use (decrease) or recharge (increase) of soil moisture, snow pack,or lake and surface storage or detention of water – the moisturesavingsKey to the water balance is determining the amount of water that would evaporate and transpire if itwere available (POTET).Now, examine and compare the PRECIP (supply) map in Figure 3a to the POTET (demand) map inFigure 3b for the continental United States. The relationship between PRECIP supplies and POTETdemands determines the remaining components of the water-balance equation of water resources.3
Figure 3: (a) Average annual precipitation in inches; and (b) potential evapotranspiration in inchesWhat is an annual precipitation amount? What about potential evapotranspiration?Your instructor will lead discussions in class about these key water-balance concepts. Make sure thatyou take good notes so that you can answer homework questions easilyIdentify (from the two maps) regions where PRECIP supply (Figure 3a) is higher than POTET demand(Figure 3b)? Describe these regions. (Question 1)Identify (from the two maps) regions where POTET demand is higher than PRECIP supply? Describethese regions. (Question 2)Based on these maps, why does 95% of the irrigated agriculture in the United States occur west of the100th meridian? Use Google Earth to find out the 100th meridian. (Questions 3 and 4)Section 2Water Balance Supply and Demand for Indianapolis, IndianaFigure 4: Stages of soil moisture availabilityThere are some additional conditions that you may want to remember as you start working on waterbudget calculations, including soil moisture availability and different thresholds (Figure 4).4
Soil-moisture storage is a savings account of water that can receive deposits and allowwithdrawals as conditions change in the water balance.Soil-moisture storage ( STRGE) refers to the amount of water that is stored in the soil and isaccessible to plant roots.After water drains from the larger pore spaces, the available water remaining for plants istermed field capacity, or storage capacity. This water is held in the soil by hydrogen bondingagainst the pull of gravity.The soil moisture that is generally accessible to plant roots is capillary water, held in the soilby surface tension and hydrogen-bonding between the water and the soil. Almost all capillarywater is available water in soil moisture storage and is removable for POTET demands throughthe action of plant roots and surface evaporation.Soil is said to be at the wilting point (withdrawal) when all that is left in the soil isunextractable water (hygroscopic water); the plants wilt and eventually die after a prolongedperiod of such moisture stress.Field capacity is specific to each soil type and is an amount that can be determined by soilsurveys.Assuming a soil moisture storage capacity of 100 mm for Indianapolis, Indiana, typical of shallowrooted plants, the months of net demand for moisture are satisfied through soil-moisture utilization.Various plant types send roots to different depths and therefore are exposed to varying amounts of soilmoisture (Figure 5).Figure 5: Plants with different root systems and 3-vegetation.htmlFor this exercise we assume that soil moisture utilization occurs at 100%, that is, if there is a netwater demand, the plants will be able to extract moisture as needed. Actually, in nature as theavailable soil water is reduced by soil-moisture utilization; the plants must exert greater effort toextract the same amount of moisture. As a result, even though a small amount of water may remain inthe soil, plants may be unable to exert enough pressure to utilize it.The unsatisfied demand resulting from this situation is calculated as a deficit. Avoiding suchdeficit inefficiencies and reduction in plant growth are the goals of a proper irrigation program, for theharder plants must work to get water, the less their yield and growth will be.Likewise, relative to soil moisture recharge we assume a 100% rate if the soil moisture storageis less than field capacity, then excess moisture beyond POTET demand will go to soil-moisturerecharge. We assume in this exercise a soil moisture recharge rate as 100% efficient as long as the soilis below field capacity and above a temperature of –1 C. Under real conditions we know thatinfiltration actually proceeds rapidly in the first minutes of a storm, slowing as the upper layers of soilbecome saturated even though the soil below is still dry.5
Table 1. Water budget calculations table for Indianapolis, Indiana. All quantities in millimeters 8150PRECIP–POTET 76 59 76 54 31-282-40-37-75 196 76 807---10010011007223204019695100----40-32405 19 76 57054750008248150000757STRGE100100 ACTET00149SURPL767597767TotalThere are explanations for shaded cells in the table above. Superscripts (small numbers) in the tableare not exponents; instead they refer to the explanations below.1The storage remains at the maximum from a previous month to a given month (e.g., from January toFebruary) because the balance of (PRECIP – POTET) is positive; that is, supply (PRECIP) exceeddemand (POTET), and thus there is no need for water in the storage to be tapped in.2For this month, the water demand (POTET) is greater than supply (PRECIP). How can we satisfy thisdeficit? Use water in the storage (STRGE). Since the balance of (PRECIP – POTET) is negative inJune, this supply shortage is balanced out by using water from STRGE.3As a result, there is a change in STRGE ( STRGE –28) in June. You see how much change tookplace in STRGE from a previous month to a given month (e.g., May to June—this is shown in STRGE).4The maximum STRGE is 100, while the minimum STRGE is 0. In August, the balance of (PRECIP –POTET) is again negative (–37), but there is an insufficient amount of water in storage (see JulySTRGE amount of 32). All water is used up, but there is still a shortage of supply, which is a deficit(DEFIC) of 5. In August, all water in the storage is used up, and STRGE goes to 0, as a result. Thus, inAugust, there is a deficit (DEFIC) of 5.5In September, there is again a negative balance of (PRECIP – POTET). Since the STRGE has beendepleted, there is no change in STRGE and this balance in shortage of supply, 7, is recorded asDEFIC.6Beginning in October, the balance of (PRECIP – POTET) becomes positive. Any positive value of(PRECIP – POTET) contributes to the storage—that is, if STRGE is smaller than 100 (maximumcapacity), any surplus of (PRECIP – POTET) recharges STRGE first until it has reached 100. [If it isalready 100, any positive value of (PRECIP – POTET) becomes surplus (SURPL).]7For the months of January through May, the amount of supply exceeds that of demand. That is, thereis no shortage of water. In addition, STRGE is full (100), and there is no need for this storage of waterto be used (again, there is no water shortage), and thus any positive balance of (PRECIP – POTET) isconsidered SURPL.8December begins with the STRGE value of 95, and a small amount of recharge (5) is necessary forSTRGE to become full again. Given that (PRECIP – POTET) for this month is 80, 5 out of this 80 isused to recharge STRGE to the maximum of 100, and the remaining 75 is considered SURPL.9In March, actual evapotranspiration [ACTET (POTET – DEFIC)] is 14, given that POTET is 14and DEFIC is 0. In August, however, DEFIC is 5, so ACTET is 124 [(POTET – DEFIC) 129 – 5 124.By subtracting DEFIC from POTET, you determine the actual evapotranspiration, or ACTET, thattakes place for each month. Calculate the actual evapotranspiration for each month of the year forIndianapolis and note this value in the table. (Under ideal moisture conditions, POTET and ACTET areabout the same, so that plants do not experience a water shortage.) Prolonged deficits could lead todrought conditions, in which POTET exceeds ACTET.Answer homework questions based on the values in the table above that you calculated. (Questions 5and 6)6
Section 3Water Budget Calculations for Chico, CaliforniaFor comparison, let’s work with data for Chico, CA (on same latitude as Indianapolis, IN), whichexperiences large seasonal deficits in its annual water balance. Chico, CA, (39 44’ N, 121 50’ W, at 59m elevation) has a Mediterranean dry, warm summer climate. Assume the same soil-moisture storagecapacity of 100 mm, typical of shallow-rooted plants. The months of net demand for moisture aresatisfied through soil-moisture utilization, as long as the soil moisture is available. Chico, CA doesexperience a wilting point each year.Table 2. Water budget calculations table for Chico, California. All quantities in millimeters 6227131841369916-55-107 -151 -128 -84-1193138100100 100450000093000-55-450000937PRECIP–POTETSTRGE100 STRGE---100DEFIC0000062151128 31000000184 136 99 16Answer homework questions based on the values in the table above that you calculated. (Questions 7through 12)Section 4Water Balance GraphsA useful way to visualize the water balance for a location is to graph the data. Draw two graphs—onefor Indianapolis, IN and the other for Chico, CA.To draw a water balance graph, use the PRECIP, POTET, and STRGE data for each location.Prepare the graphs as line graphs and a bar graph by month. Similar to the climograph that you drew ina previous lab, you will make a single graph for each location that includes both lines and bars. MakePRECIP a blue line and POTET a red line. You can make this change by double-clicking a line andthen select an appropriate color for a given line. Make sure to include two axes; one for PRECIP andPOTET, while the other is for STRGE. (Questions 13 and 14)For both locations, count the number of months that STRGE is full, the number of months thatutilization of soil-moisture storage is occurring, and the number of months that recharge of soilmoisture storage is occurring.TypeNumber of months(Indianapolis, IN)Number of months (Chico,CA)STRAGE is full55Soil-moisture storage utilization32Soil-moisture storage recharge32Draw a pie chart for each location using three values above. Find a video that illustrates “how to draw apie chart” on Blackboard Learn. (Questions 15 and 16)You will visually interpret two pie charts created. (Question 17)7
ACTET (actual evapotranspiration) the actual amount of evaporation and transpiration that occurs . Field capacity is specific to each soil type and is an amount that can be determined by soil surveys. Assuming a soil moisture storage capacity of 100 mm for Indianapolis, Indiana, typical of shallow- .
Oct 14, 2021 · Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1346 4 of 12 where x denotes the original model precipitation; y denotes the calibrated precipitation; OBSk is the precipitation grading that selects five grades, namely, 0.1, 2, 4, 8, and 20; and xk is the new precipitation grading. For the FM method, xk is the model threshold with the same frequency as that of the observed OBSk.
Extreme precipitation refers to an episode of abnormally high rainfall. The word “extreme” may vary depending on location, season, and length of historical record. These events are defined as days with precipitation in the top one percent of days with precipitation (U.S. Global Change, 2019).
Step 6. Calculate the mean storm event precipitation depth at the project site, called (P 6) site. Multiply the mean storm event precipitation depth for the rain gage chosen by a correction factor, which is the ratio of the mean annual precipitation at the site (MAP site) to the mean annual precipitation at the rain gage (MAPgage).
Michigan. Lake effects cause 25 to 100 percent greater snowfall along the eastern shore. Average lake precipitation is 4 percent higher in winter, 7 percent lower in spring, and 14 percent lower in summer than basin land precipitation; they are equal in fall. Reference: Changnon, Stanley A., Jr Precipitation Climatology of Lake Michigan Basin.
Jun 28, 2007 · and Heat Treatment Schedules for Age Hardening Aluminium Alloys," Graz, 26 May 2005. 19 Precipitation Bratland, et al., Acta Mat., v. 45, No. 1, pp.1-22, 1997. 20 Precipitation Modeling Using PrecipiCalc to Model Precipitation . 21 Precipitation Modeling Mg 2Si . Myhr, et al., "Modelling of the Age Hardening
THE CLOUD CENSUS A. Definition of Cloud Types B. Data and Data Limitations c. Analysis of Total Cloud Amount D. Analysis of Cloud Types E. Amounts of Different Cloud Types CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION A. Texas Precipitation Seasons B. Synoptic Events Related to Periods of Maximum Precipitation
precipitation of solutions containing several metals. The term precipitation commonly refers to phenomena in which solid particles are rapidly formed from a liquid solution phase. The relatively rapid timescale of precipitation is what distinguishes it from the general term crystallization. Crystallization is often thought as a
PRECIPITATION PREDICTION USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS by KEVIN L. CROWELL (Under the direction of Gerrit Hoogenboom) ABSTRACT Precipitation, in meteorology, is defined as any product, liquid or solid, of atmospheric water vapor that is accumulated onto the earth's surface. Water, and thus precipitation, has a
