Wind Energy In The United States And Materials Required .
Wind Energy in the United States and MaterialsRequired for the Land-Based Wind Turbine IndustryFrom 2010 Through 2030Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5036U.S. Department of the InteriorU.S. Geological Survey
Cover.Photograph of the Twin Groves wind farm in McLean County, Ill., by Guenter Conzelmann, Argonne National Laboratories.
Wind Energy in the United States andMaterials Required for the Land-BasedWind Turbine Industry From 2010Through 2030By David R. WilburnScientific Investigations Report 2011–5036U.S. Department of the InteriorU.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the InteriorKEN SALAZAR, SecretaryU.S. Geological SurveyMarcia K. McNutt, DirectorU.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and livingresources, natural hazards, and the environment, visit http://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS.For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications,visit http://www.usgs.gov/pubprodTo order this and other USGS information products, visit http://store.usgs.govAny use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by theU.S. Government.Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners toreproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.Suggested citation:Wilburn, D.R., 2011, Wind energy in the United States and materials required for the land-based wind turbine industryfrom 2010 through 2030: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5036, 22 p.
iiiContentsAbstract.1Introduction.1Historical Perspective.1Description of a Typical Wind Turbine.2Profile of Electricity Generation in the United States From Wind Power.4Life Cycle of a Wind Turbine.5Transportation Logistics.6Recent Technological Advancements.7Material Requirements of Wind Turbines.7Nacelle.10Rotor.11Tower.11Projected Use of Materials Through 2030.11Cast Iron and Steel.14Concrete.14Fiberglass and Composites.15Rare Earth Elements.15Copper.15Land Area.15Conclusions.16References Cited.17Appendix 1. Estimates of Wind Turbine Life Cycle Emissions, Energy Consumption,and Water Consumption.20Appendix 2. Wind Turbine Assumptions and Selection Methodology.21Figures1.2.Diagrams showing a typical large wind turbine and major components.2Graph showing the growth of the U.S. wind power industry.4
ivTables1.2.3.4.5.6.A2–1.Estimates of the costs for components of a typical 1.5-megawatt wind turbine.3Principal advantages and disadvantages of wind power.6Lifetime resource consumption per kilowatthour produced for representativeonshore wind turbines in Europe.7Principal components of a wind turbine and areas of research for eachcomponent.8Estimated requirements for materials per megawatt capacity of electricityfor representative wind turbine technologies.12Annual requirements for materials in selected years to meet projectedwind turbine demand by 2030.13Estimates used in this report for the quality of selected materials requiredby the wind turbine industry from 2010 through 2030.23Conversion FactorsMultiplysquare meter (m2)hectare (ha)kilogram (kg)megagram (Mg) or metric ton (t)watt To obtainacreacrepound avoirdupois (lb)ton, short (2,000 lb)horsepower (HP)
Wind Energy in the United States and Materials Requiredfor the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010Through 2030By David R. WilburnAbstractThe generation of electricity in the United States fromwind-powered turbines is increasing. An understanding ofthe sources and abundance of raw materials required by thewind turbine industry and the many uses for these materialsis necessary to assess the effect of this industry’s growthon future demand for selected raw materials relative to thehistorical demand for these materials. The U.S. GeologicalSurvey developed estimates of future requirements for raw(and some recycled) materials based on the assumption thatwind energy will supply 20 percent of the electricity consumedin the United States by 2030. Economic, environmental,political, and technological considerations and trends reportedfor 2009 were used as a baseline. Estimates for the quantity ofmaterials in typical “current generation” and “next generation”wind turbines were developed. In addition, estimates for theannual and total material requirements were developed basedon the growth necessary for wind energy when converted in awind powerplant to generate 20 percent of the U.S. supply ofelectricity by 2030.The results of the study suggest that achieving the marketgoal of 20 percent by 2030 would require an average annualconsumption of about 6.8 million metric tons of concrete, 1.5million metric tons of steel, 310,000 metric tons of cast iron,40,000 metric tons of copper, and 380 metric tons of the rareearth element neodymium. With the exception of neodymium,these material requirements represent less than 3 percent ofthe U.S. apparent consumption for 2008. Recycled materialcould supply about 3 percent of the total steel required forwind turbine production from 2010 through 2030, 4 percent ofthe aluminum required, and 3 percent of the copper required.The data suggest that, with the possible exception of rareearth elements, there should not be a shortage of the principalmaterials required for electricity generation from wind energy.There may, however, be selective manufacturing shortages ifthe total demand for raw materials from all markets is greaterthan the available supply of these materials or the capacityof industry to manufacture components. Changing economicconditions could also affect the development schedule ofanticipated capacity.IntroductionAs the amount of electricity generated from wind powerincreases, an understanding of the materials associated withthe construction, transportation, installation, operation,decommissioning, and disposal of large wind powerplants1(also referred to as wind farms) is essential. The analysesin this report provide policymakers and the public with anoverview of factors currently and potentially affecting rawmaterial requirements for land-based wind turbines. As thewind turbine industry modifies turbine designs, the demandfor selected materials will also change. This study complements ongoing work by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) toevaluate the supply of raw materials available for establishedand emerging renewable energy technologies being implemented in the United States.Historical PerspectiveA wind-powered energy system transforms the kineticenergy of the wind into mechanical or electrical energy thatis harnessed for practical use. Simple windmills were usedto pump water in China before 200 B.C. By the 11th centuryAD, people in the Middle East were using windmills forgrinding grain. Merchants returning from the East Indiesbrought knowledge of windmill technology to Europe, wherethe Dutch adapted it for driving pumps to remove water fromlowland areas. Windmills were introduced to the New Worldin the 18th century and were used to pump water and grindgrain for rural farms and ranches. Wind-driven turbines (windturbines) are much larger devices that came into use in theFor the purposes of this report, the term wind powerplant has been usedto designate a group of wind turbines interconnected to a common powerprovider system through a system of distribution lines, substation(s), andtransformers. In Europe, the equivalent is known as a generating station.1
2 Wind Energy in the US and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030United States after World War II to generate electricity forhouses, businesses, and utility companies.Technological advancements in the use of wind energyto produce electricity accelerated in the 1970s as oneconsequence of the Organization of Petroleum ExportingCountries oil embargo of 1973, which generated highfuel prices and stimulated research to find alternatives tononrenewable sources of energy, such as coal, gas, and oil.The Solar Energy Research Development and DemonstrationAct of 1974 led to increased research and developmentof renewable energy sources; as the costs of competingnonrenewable fuel sources increased, environmental concernsalso increased, but so, too, did interest in achieving energyindependence and securing sources of supply. The SolarEnergy Research Institute (SERI) began operating in 1977.After SERI was consolidated with the Rocky Flats Wind TestCenter and research was expanded to include wind energy in1991, the facility, located in Golden, Colorado, was designateda national laboratory and named the National RenewableEnergy Laboratory (NREL).In the United States, Federal and State investment andproduction tax credits offered during the 1980s, 1990s, andearly 2000s further stimulated the development and use ofrenewable resources. Other countries also provided incentivesfor renewable energy development. By 1985, first-generationwind-driven electrical generators were developed withan average rating of 100 kilowatts (kW) (American WindEnergy Association, 2009a, p. 5). A combination of researchand development, along with experience gained throughdeployment of this early technology, has led to larger, lowercost, and more efficient second-generation wind turbines. In2006, the President endorsed the Nation’s need for greaterenergy efficiency and independence and a more diversifiedenergy portfolio. This led to a collaborative research effortby the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Black & VeatchCorporation, and the American Wind Energy Association(hereafter referred to as the DOE wind study) to develop astrategy to increase the contribution of wind energy to the U.S.electrical supply to 20 percent by 2030 (U.S. Department ofEnergy, 2008, p. 1). Most recently, the American Recovery andReinvestment Act of 2009 extended the Federal production taxcredit for wind energy through 2012.Description of a Typical Wind TurbineWind turbines consist of three principal components, thenacelle, rotor, and tower (fig. 1). The nacelle compartmentis connected to the rotor hub by a shaft and contains thegenerator, gears, and controlling mechanisms that maximizeenergy collection and conversion. The rotor, usually consistingof three wing-shaped blades connected to a central hub,converts the kinetic energy of the wind into rotational energy.The tower, including the supporting foundation, provides theheight necessary to access the wind resource and the conduitrequired to transfer the turbine-generated electricity to thecollection system of the wind powerplant where electricityfrom all wind turbines is often fed to the power grid.Although wind turbines come in many sizes andconfigurations and are constructed from a wide range of70 m diameterPitchRotorBlade - 35 mBoeing 747Jumbo JetSpan 59.6 mLength 70.5mLow-speedshaftGear boxRotorGenerator95 mWinddirectionControllerAnemometerBrakeNacelle(see inset for details)Base height 60 mYaw driveWind vaneYaw motorTowerBladesATowerBFigure 1. Diagrams of (A) a typical large wind turbine and (B) major components.High-speedshaftNacelle
Introduction 3materials, most commercial-utility-scale turbines haveinstalled generator nameplate capacity ratings of 1 to 3megawatts (MW). The average nameplate capacity of the3,190 wind turbines installed in the United States during 2007was 1.65 MW; similarly, the average nameplate capacity ofthe 5,029 wind turbines installed in 2008 was 1.66 MW, andthe average nameplate capacity of the 5,734 wind turbinesinstalled in 2009 was 1.74 MW (Wiser and Bolinger, 2010, p.26). Utility-scale turbines typically have tower heights rangingfrom 45 to 105 meters (m), rotor diameters from 57 to 99 m,and rotor blades from 27 to 45 m. The 1.5-MW turbine on an80-m tower is the most widely used onshore wind turbine,accounting for more than 50 percent of the utility-scale unitsinstalled in 2008 in the United States (Wiser and Bolinger,2009). Most utility-scale turbines are installed in arrays of 30to 150 units; when these units provide power to the utility gridas a single source of electricity, they are collectively termed awind powerplant or wind farm. A typical utility-scale 1.5-MWwind turbine has the capacity to generate about 3.4 millionkilowatthours per year (kWh/yr) of electricity, equivalent tothe annual electrical requirement of 300 households, assumingan individual household use of 11,300 kWh/yr (Saint FrancisUniversity, 2007; U.S. Energy Information Administration,2008). Table 1 shows several historical estimates of the totalcapital cost as a percentage of the initial capital investment forcomponents of a typical 1.5-MW wind turbine.Table 1. Estimates of the costs for components of a typical 1.5-megawatt wind turbine.[Estimates are expressed in terms of the percent of total capital cost of a wind turbine. Inc., included in reported subtotal for component; NA, not available; XX,not applicable]ComponentPartNAICS1codeReference yearRotorNacelle (excluding drivetrain de extender331511Inc.NAInc.Hub331511Inc.4Inc.Pitch 99Inc.5.55Inc.2.5Cooling .8NAYaw SubtotalDrivetrain components (contained in thenacelle)Cost r 520.626.30Tower flange331511Inc.Tower foundation238110Inc.Power .73.5928.92632.730.931North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) as reported by the NAICS Association.2Percent of total capital cost for a typical turbine with blades 45.3 meters in length and a tower 100 meters in height.31.04Data are from Sterzinger and Svrcek (2004). 4Data are from Fingersh and others (2006). 5Data are from European Wind Energy Association (2009).Inc.
4 Wind Energy in the US and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry From 2010 Through 2030Profile of Electricity Generation in theUnited States From Wind PowerWind power is the conversion of wind energy into auseable form, such as electricity. The electricity-generatingcapacity of wind power contributed about 1.3 percent ofthe total U.S. electricity supply in 2008 and 1.8 percent in2009 (American Wind Energy Association, 2010a, p. 5–6).For comparison, coal was the source for 45 percent of U.S.electricity supplied in 2009; natural gas, 23 percent; nuclearpower, 20 percent; and hydroelectric power, 7 percent. Theelectricity-generating capacity of wind power contributed lessthan 2 percent of the new electricity-generating capacity in theUnited States in 2004, but accounted for 42 percent of newlycommissioned capacity in 2008 and 39 percent in 2009 (Wiserand Bolinger, 2010).The annual electricity-generating capacity of the UnitedStates from wind power increased from 2.5 gigawatts (GW)in 2000 to more than 35 GW in 2009 (American Wind EnergyAssociation, 2010a), an average annual growth rate of about23 percent (fig. 2). The top 10 States for generating electricityfrom wind turbines in 2009 were, in descending order, Texas,Iowa, California, Washington, Oregon, Minnesota, Illinois,New York, Colorado, and North Dakota.Wind energy is generally considered to be abundantbut highly variable, and production capacity varies widelyfrom State to State. Many factors must be considered whendetermining the site for a wind powerplant. A thoroughunderstanding of the dynamics of the wind available tothe project is one necessary component contributing to theeconomic success and production efficiency of a wind powerproject. Accurate estimates of wind direction, distribution,duration, gradient, and speed are essential to the properlocation of a wind powerplant. Areas with average annualwind speeds at or greater than 23.4 kilometers per hour (14.5miles per hour) at an 80-m height above the ground (the heightof a typical wind turbine rotor) are generally considered tohave a suitable wind resource for possible development (U.S.Department of Energy, 2009, p. 1). The DOE has publishedwind maps by State showing areas w
the 5,029 wind turbines installed in 2008 was 1.66 MW, and the average nameplate capacity of the 5,734 wind turbines installed in 2009 was 1.74 MW (Wiser and Bolinger, 2010, p. 26). Utility-scale turbines typically have tower heights ranging from 45 to 105 meters (m), rotor diameters from 57 to 99 m, and rotor blades from 27 to 45 m.
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energy conversion scheme using both wind and photovoltaic energy sources. 1.1 Wind Energy Systems Wind energy conversion systems convert the kinetic energy associated with wind speed into electrical energy for feeding power to the grid. The energy is captured by the blades of wind turbines whose rotor is connected to the shaft of electric .
