Extent, Nature, And Consequences Of Intimate Partner .

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U.S. Department of JusticeOffice of Justice ProgramsNational Institute of JusticeExtent, Nature, andConsequences of IntimatePartner Violenceresearch reportFindings From the NationalViolence Against Women Survey

U.S. Department of JusticeOffice of Justice Programs810 Seventh Street N.W.Washington, DC 20531Janet RenoAttorney GeneralDaniel MarcusActing Associate Attorney GeneralMary Lou LearyActing Assistant Attorney GeneralJulie E. SamuelsActing Director, National Institute of JusticeOffice of Justice ProgramsWorld Wide Web Sitehttp://www.ojp.usdoj.govNational Institute of JusticeWorld Wide Web Sitehttp://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij

Extent, Nature, andConsequences of IntimatePartner ViolencePatricia TjadenNancy ThoennesFindings From the NationalViolence Against Women SurveyJuly 2000NCJ 181867

CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROLAND PREVENTIONJulie E. SamuelsActing Director, National Institute of JusticeStephen B. ThackerActing Director, National Center for Injury Prevention and ControlThis research was sponsored jointly by the National Institute of Justice and the Centers for Disease Control andPrevention under NIJ Grant # 93–IJ–CX–0012. The opinions and conclusions expressed in this document are solelythose of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of Justice or the Centers forDisease Control and Prevention.The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes theBureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and DelinquencyPrevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime.

iiiExecutive SummaryThis report presents findings from the NationalViolence Against Women (NVAW) Survey onthe extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence in the United States.The National Institute of Justice and theCenters for Disease Control and Preventioncosponsored the survey through a grant to theCenter for Policy Research. The survey consists of telephone interviews with a nationallyrepresentative sample of 8,000 U.S. womenand 8,000 U.S. men about their experiences asvictims of various forms of violence, includingintimate partner violence.victimized more than once, the number ofintimate partner victimizations exceeds thenumber of intimate partner victims annually.Thus, approximately 4.8 million intimatepartner rapes and physical assaults are perpetrated against U.S. women annually, andapproximately 2.9 million intimate partnerphysical assaults are committed against U.S.men annually. These findings suggest thatintimate partner violence is a serious criminal justice and public health concern. The survey compares intimate partner victimization rates among women and men, specificracial groups, Hispanics and non-Hispanics,and same-sex and opposite-sex cohabitants.It also examines risk factors associated withintimate partner violence, the rate of injuryamong rape and physical assault victims,injured victims’ use of medical services, andvictims’ involvement with the justice system.Analysis of the survey data produced thefollowing results: Intimate partner violence is pervasive inU.S. society. Nearly 25 percent of surveyedwomen and 7.6 percent of surveyed mensaid they were raped and/or physicallyassaulted by a current or former spouse,cohabiting partner, or date at some timein their lifetime; 1.5 percent of surveyedwomen and 0.9 percent of surveyed mensaid they were raped and/or physicallyassaulted by a partner in the previous 12months. According to these estimates, approximately 1.5 million women and 834,732men are raped and/or physically assaultedby an intimate partner annually in theUnited States. Because many victims are Stalking by intimates is more prevalent thanpreviously thought. Almost 5 percent of surveyed women and 0.6 percent of surveyedmen reported being stalked by a current orformer spouse, cohabiting partner, or date atsome time in their lifetime; 0.5 percent ofsurveyed women and 0.2 percent of surveyed men reported being stalked by such apartner in the previous 12 months. According to these estimates, 503,485 women and185,496 men are stalked by an intimatepartner annually in the United States. Theseestimates exceed previous nonscientific“guesstimates” of stalking prevalence in thegeneral population. These findings suggestthat intimate partner stalking is a seriouscriminal justice problem, and States shouldcontinue to develop constitutionally soundand effective antistalking statutes and intervention strategies.Women experience more intimate partnerviolence than do men. The NVAW surveyfound that women are significantly morelikely than men to report being victims ofintimate partner violence whether it is rape,physical assault, or stalking and whetherthe timeframe is the person’s lifetime or the

ivprevious 12 months. These findings supportdata from the Bureau of Justice Statistics’National Crime Victimization Survey,which consistently show women are at significantly greater risk of intimate partnerviolence than are men. However, they contradict data from the National Family Violence Survey, which consistently show menand women are equally likely to be physically assaulted by an intimate partner. Studies are needed to determine how differentsurvey methodologies affect women’s andmen’s responses to questions about intimatepartner violence. Rates of intimate partner violence vary significantly among women of diverse racialbackgrounds. The survey found that Asian/Pacific Islander women and men tend to report lower rates of intimate partner violencethan do women and men from other minority backgrounds, and African-American andAmerican Indian/Alaska Native women andmen report higher rates. However, differences among minority groups diminishwhen other sociodemographic and relationship variables are controlled. More researchis needed to determine how much of the difference in intimate partner prevalence ratesamong women and men of different racialand ethnic backgrounds can be explainedby the respondent’s willingness to discloseintimate partner violence and how much bysocial, demographic, and environmentalfactors. Research is also needed to determine how prevalence rates vary amongwomen and men of diverse AmericanIndian/Alaska Native and Asian/PacificIslander groups.Violence perpetrated against women by intimates is often accompanied by emotionallyabusive and controlling behavior. The survey found that women whose partners werejealous, controlling, or verbally abusivewere significantly more likely to reportbeing raped, physically assaulted, and/orstalked by their partners, even when othersociodemographic and relationship characteristics were controlled. Indeed, having a verbally abusive partner was the variable mostlikely to predict that a woman would bevictimized by an intimate partner. Thesefindings support the theory that violenceperpetrated against women by intimates isoften part of a systematic pattern of dominance and control. Women experience more chronic and injurious physical assaults at the hands of intimatepartners than do men. The survey found thatwomen who were physically assaulted by anintimate partner averaged 6.9 physical assaults by the same partner, but men averaged4.4 assaults. The survey also found that 41.5percent of the women who were physicallyassaulted by an intimate partner were injuredduring their most recent assault, comparedwith 19.9 percent of the men. These findingssuggest that research aimed at understandingand preventing intimate partner violenceagainst women should be stressed.Women living with female intimate partnersexperience less intimate partner violencethan women living with male intimate partners. Slightly more than 11 percent of thewomen who had lived with a woman as partof a couple reported being raped, physicallyassaulted, and/or stalked by a female cohabitant, but 30.4 percent of the women whohad married or lived with a man as part of acouple reported such violence by a husbandor male cohabitant. These findings suggestthat lesbian couples experience less intimatepartner violence than do heterosexualcouples; however, more research is neededto support or refute this conclusion.Men living with male intimate partners experience more intimate partner violence than domen who live with female intimate partners.Approximately 15 percent of the men whohad lived with a man as a couple reported

vbeing raped, physically assaulted, and/orstalked by a male cohabitant, while 7.7 percent of the men who had married or livedwith a woman as a couple reported such violence by a wife or female cohabitant. Thesefindings, combined with those presented inthe previous bullet, provide further evidencethat intimate partner violence is perpetratedprimarily by men, whether against male orfemale intimates. Thus, strategies for preventing intimate partner violence shouldfocus on risks posed by men. The U.S. medical community treats millionsof intimate partner rapes and physical assaults annually. Of the estimated 4.8 millionintimate partner rapes and physical assaultsperpetrated against women annually, approximately 2 million will result in an injuryto the victim, and 552,192 will result in sometype of medical treatment to the victim. Ofthe estimated 2.9 million intimate partnerphysical assaults perpetrated against men annually, 581,391 will result in an injury to thevictim, and 124,999 will result in some typeof medical treatment to the victim. Manymedically treated victims receive multipleforms of care (e.g., ambulance services,emergency room care, or physical therapy)and multiple treatments (e.g., several daysin the hospital) for the same victimization.Therefore, the number of medical personneltreating injuries annually is in the millions.To better meet the needs of intimate partnerviolence victims, medical professionalsshould receive training on the physical consequences of intimate partner violence andappropriate medical intervention strategies. Most intimate partner victimizations are notreported to the police. Approximately onefifth of all rapes, one-quarter of all physicalassaults, and one-half of all stalkings perpetrated against female respondents by intimates were reported to the police. Evenfewer rapes, physical assaults, and stalkingsperpetrated against male respondents by intimates were reported. The majority of victimswho did not report their victimization to thepolice thought the police would not or couldnot do anything on their behalf. These findings suggest that most victims of intimatepartner violence do not consider the justicesystem an appropriate vehicle for resolvingconflicts with intimates.

viiAcknowledgmentsThe authors thank staff at both the NationalInstitute of Justice (NIJ) and the Centers forDisease Control and Prevention (CDC), inparticular Lois Mock at NIJ and LindaSaltzman at CDC, for their advice andsupport in conducting the research.The authors also thank Marcie-jo Kresnow,mathematical statistician at CDC, and anonymous NIJ peer reviewers for their thoroughreview and helpful comments on drafts of thisreport. Finally, the authors thank ChristineAllison and Gay Dizinski at the Center forPolicy Research for their help in producing andscrutinizing drafts of the report.

ixContentsExecutive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iiiAcknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viiIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Defining Intimate Partner Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Prevalence and Incidence of Intimate Partner Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Intimate partner rape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Intimate partner physical assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Intimate partner stalking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Comparison With Previous Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Intimate partner rape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Intimate partner physical assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Intimate partner stalking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13131314Women Experience More Intimate Partner Violence Than Do Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Deciphering Disparities in Survey Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence Among Racial Minorities and Hispanics . . . . . . 25Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence Among Same-Sex Cohabitants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Risk Factors Associated With Intimate Partner Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Point in Relationship When Violence Occurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Frequency and Duration of Intimate Partner Rape and Physical Assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Rate of Injury Among Victims of Intimate Partner Rape and Physical Assault . . . . . . . . . 41Risk factors associated with injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Victims’ Use of Medical Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Estimates of medical services utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

xVictims’ Involvement With the Justice System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Reporting to the police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Police response to reports of intimate partner violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Reasons for not reporting victimization to the police. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Criminal prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Temporary restraining orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Estimates of justice system utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49495051525253Policy Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

xiExhibitsExhibit 1.Persons Victimized by an Intimate Partner in Lifetime and in Previous 12 Months,by Type of Victimization and GenderExhibit 2.Number of Rape, Physical Assault, and Stalking Victimizations Perpetrated byIntimate Partners Annually, by Victim GenderExhibit 3.Persons Physically Assaulted by an Intimate Partner in Lifetime, by Type of Assaultand Victim GenderExhibit 4.Estimated Standard Errors Multiplied by the z-Score (1.96) for a 95-PercentConfidence Level, by Sample or Subsample SizeExhibit 5.Persons Victimized by an Intimate Partner in Lifetime, by Victim Gender, Type ofVictimization, and White/Nonwhite Status of VictimExhibit 6.Persons Victimized by an Intimate Partner in Lifetime, by Victim Gender, Type ofVictimization, and Victim RaceExhibit 7.Persons Victimized by an Intimate Partner in Lifetime, by Victim Gender, Type ofVictimization, and Hispanic/Non-Hispanic Origin of VictimExhibit 8.Persons Victimized by an Intimate Partner in Lifetime, by Victim Gender, Type ofVictimization, and History of Same-Sex/Opposite-Sex CohabitationExhibit 9.Rate of Intimate Partner Victimization, by Perpetrator Gender, Victim Gender, andHistory of Same-Sex/Opposite-Sex CohabitationExhibit 10. Distribution of Female Victims of Intimate Partner Rape, Physical Assault, andStalking, by Point in Relationship When the Violence OccurredExhibit 11. Distribution of Rape and Physical Assault Victims, by Frequency and Duration ofVictimization and GenderExhibit 12. Distribution of Intimate Partner Rape and Physical Assault Victims, by Injury,Type of Medical Care Received, and GenderExhibit 13. Distribution of Injured Rape and Physical Assault Victims, by Type of InjurySustained: Women OnlyExhibit 14. Average Number of Medical Care Visits for Intimate Partner Rape and PhysicalAssault Victims, by Type of Medical Care and Gender

xiiExhibit 15. Average Annual Injury and Medical Utilization Estimates for Adult Victims ofIntimate Partner Rape and Physical Assault, by GenderExhibit 16. Distribution of Intimate Partner Rape, Physical Assault, and Stalking Victims,by Law Enforcement Outcomes and GenderExhibit 17. Distribution of Rape, Physical Assault, and Stalking Victims Who Did Not ReportTheir Victimization to the Police, by Reasons for Not Reporting and GenderExhibit 18. Distribution of Intimate Partner Rape, Physical Assault, and Stalking Victims,by Prosecution Outcomes and GenderExhibit 19. Distribution of Intimate Partner Rape, Physical Assault, and Stalking Victims,by Protective Order Outcomes and GenderExhibit 20. Average Annual Justice System Utilization Estimates for Adult Victims of IntimatePartner Rape, Physical Assault, and Stalking, by Gender

1IntroductionResearch on intimate partner violence has increased dramatically over the past 20 years.While greatly enhancing public awareness andunderstanding of this serious social problem,this research has also created much controversyand confusion. Findings of intimate partner victimization vary widely from study to study.1Some studies conclude that women and men areequally likely to be victimized by their partners,2but others conclude that women are more likelyto be victimized.3 Some studies conclude thatminorities and whites suffer equal rates of intimate partner violence,4 and others conclude thatminorities suffer higher rates.5In addition, there are many gaps in the scientificliterature on intimate partner violence, such asthe level of violence committed against men andwomen by same-sex intimates.6 Little empiricaldata exist on the relationship between differentforms of intimate partner violence, such as emotional abuse and physical assault.7 Finally, littleis known of the consequences of intimate partnerviolence, including rate of injury and victims’use of medical and justice system services.8This Research Report addresses these and otherissues related to intimate partner violence. Theinformation presented in this report is based onfindings from the National Violence AgainstWomen (NVAW) Survey, a national telephonesurvey jointly sponsored by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and the Centers for DiseaseControl and Prevention (CDC). The survey,which was conducted from November 1995 toMay 1996, consists of telephone interviews witha representative sample of 8,000 U.S. womenand 8,000 U.S. men. Survey respondents werequeried about their experiences as victims ofvarious forms of violence, including rape,physical assault, and stalking by intimatepartners. Victimized respondents were askeddetailed questions about the characteristics andconsequences of their victimization, includingthe extent and nature of any injuries they sustained, their use of medical services, and theirinvolvement with the justice system.This Research Report also summarizes thesurvey’s findings on victimization rates amongwomen and men, specific racial groups, H

The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime. CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION. iii Executive Summary

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