4th Edition Ivory Identification Guide For - Cites
4TH EDITIONIVORYIDENTIFICATION GUIDE FORAND IVORY SUBSTITUTESAuthored by:Barry W. BakerRachel L. JacobsMary-Jacque MannEdgard O. EspinozaGiavanna GreinEdited by: Crawford Allan
2 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
IVORYIDENTIFICATION GUIDE FORAND IVORY SUBSTITUTESIDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES i
2020 by CITES Secretariat and World Wildlife Fund. All rights reserved. No part of this bookmay be reproduced without permission of the CITES Secretariat and World Wildlife Fund.COVER IMAGE Martin Harvey—WWFPhoto credits: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service unless otherwise listedDISCLAIMERThe geographical designations employed in this document do not imply the expression of anyopinion whatsoever on the part of the CITES Secretariat (or the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme), World Wildlife Fund Inc. or TRAFFIC International concerning the legal status ofany country, territory, or area, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Theresponsibility for the contents of this document rests exclusively with its authors and the editor.FUNDERSThis publication was made possible with the support from the European Union (EU)(through the CITES CoP17 Decisions implementation project) and World Wildlife Fund.ABOUT THE AUTHORSThe authors of the morphology section of this guide are current and former forensic and wildlifeidentification experts working at the United States Fish & Wildlife Service Forensic Laboratory.Mary-Jacque Mann and Edgard O. Espinoza were collaborators on previous versions of thisidentification guide. Giavanna Grein is the author of the section on online trade in ivories and is anexpert on online trade in wildlife, who coordinates the Coalition to End Wildlife Trafficking Online forTRAFFIC and WWF.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSCrawford Allan edited the Guide and was responsible for production oversight. Giavanna Greinauthored the section on online trade, conducted additional research and was project manager. Barry W.Baker, Rachel L. Jacobs, Mary-Jacque Mann and Edgard O. Espinoza authored the morphology section.Thanks to Abigail Hehmeyer of WWF; Robin Sawyer, Hallie Sacks, and Stephanie Pendry of TRAFFIC.We are grateful for the support and inputs of the CITES Secretariat staff, including Haruko Okusu,Thea Carroll and Sofie Hermann Flensborg.Thank you to the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC), the United NationsOffice of Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and Jorge Rios of UNODC for the reproduction of the laboratoryanalysis section of their 2014 report, Guidelines on Methods and Procedures for Ivory Sampling andLaboratory Analysis.Design by Fuszion. French language translation provided by Martin Collette and Spanish languagetranslation provided by Lindsay Walsh.SUGGESTED CITATIONBaker, B., Jacobs, R., Mann, M., Espinoza, E., Grein, G. (2020). CITES Identification Guide for Ivory andIvory Substitutes (4th Edition, Allan, C. (ed.)), World Wildlife Fund Inc., Washington DC. Commissionedby CITES Secretariat, Geneva, Switzerland.ii IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
IVORYIDENTIFICATION GUIDE FORAND IVORY SUBSTITUTESAuthored by:Barry W. BakerRachel L. JacobsMary-Jacque MannEdgard O. EspinozaGiavanna GreinEdited by: Crawford AllanForeword byIvonne Higuero, CITES Secretary-General4th EditionIDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES iii
This Guide is also available in Chinese, French and Spanish language versionsthrough CITES (www.cites.org) and WWF (www.worldwildlife.org).iv IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
TABLE OF CONTENTSFOREWORDviINTRODUCTIONviiiELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKS12WALRUS28SPERM WHALE AND ORCA34NARWHAL38HIPPOPOTAMUS42WARTHOG50NATURAL IVORY SUBSTITUTES56MANUFACTURED IVORY SUBSTITUTES60SUGGESTED READING64MODERN FORENSIC METHODS FOR IVORYIDENTIFICATION70DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OFELEPHANT IVORY SOLD ONLINE87IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES v
FOREWORDOn behalf of the 183 Parties to the Convention on International Tradein Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the CITESSecretariat, I am honoured to welcome the much-awaited 4th editionof the Identification Guide for Ivory and Ivory Substitutes.CITES regulates more than 36,000 species of animals andplants. Parties are expected to implement the Convention for alllisted species, which means that administrators, scientists, andenforcement officers must be able to differentiate the many speciesand their products. Establishing the identity of the specimen is oneof the first pieces of information that Parties need to be able toregulate international trade in accordance with the Convention.Identification of different types of ivory, and of objects and productsmade of materials that imitate or look like ivory, is the main scopeof this identification guide. It responds to Decision 17.162 adoptedat the Seventeenth meeting of the CITES Conference of the Parties(Johannesburg, 2016), whereby Parties requested the Secretariatto prepare a revised and updated version of the IdentificationGuide for Ivory and Ivory Substitutes, taking into account modernidentification methods. Considering that the third edition of theGuide was published in 1999, we are pleased that significant progresscan be found in the present edition – both in the science and in thevisual presentation of the publication.vi IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
FOREWORDI would like to express my appreciation to the European Union forits generous financial support that allowed this update, and to thecolleagues at TRAFFIC, WWF-US and the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService Forensic Laboratory for their valuable contributions.We remain committed to continuing our collaboration with theexperts and partners in advancing our collective efforts to supportCITES Parties and to ensure the conservation and sustainable useof the world’s wildlife.Ivonne HigueroSecretary-GeneralConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and FloraIDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES vii
INTRODUCTION TOM STAHL/ WWFOur hope is that this handbookcontinues to prove useful to theinternational wildlife enforcementcommunity tasked with identifyingivory-bearing species commonlyencountered in commercial tradeviii IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
INTRODUCTIONThe information contained within this book was originally developedfor the wildlife law enforcement community in connection with itsmandate to enforce international endangered species trade regulationsand restrictions. Thousands of copies of previous editions of thisguidebook have been distributed in three languages throughout theworld. As with previous editions, the goal is to provide wildlife lawenforcement officers, scientists and managers with a visual andnon-destructive means of tentatively identifying the authenticityand species origin of suspected ivory for enforcement purposes,including a “probable cause” justification for seizure of suspectedillegal material, at ports of entry. Emphasis also remains on carvedivory, mostly because whole teeth are easily identified. Importantly,international regulations related to conservation and wildlife tradegenerally define protections based on species names (or in some casessubspecies names). Since ivory originates from a wide range of specieswhose protection status varies, species identification is critical toCITES enforcement efforts. Our hope is that this handbook continuesto prove useful to the international wildlife enforcement communitytasked with identifying ivory-bearing species commonly encounteredin commercial trade.IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 1
INTRODUCTIONA note on species names and listings: Herein we use the scientificnames of animals as followed by agreement of the signatory countriesof CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora). For example, CITES currently recognizes twospecies of living elephants, the African elephant (Loxodonta africana)and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Many scientists considerthe African forest elephant to be a unique species of its own (Loxodontacyclotis), though here we follow CITES nomenclature for enforcementpurposes. Similarly, while most recent taxonomic references recognizethe pygmy hippopotamus as Choeropsis liberiensis, we use the scientificname recognized by CITES, Hexaprotodon liberiensis. Importantly, CITESmay adopt taxonomic and nomenclatural changes over time. Readersare encouraged to remain current on changes through the CITES website(www.cites.org and www.speciesplus.net). At the beginning of eachidentification section, it is noted if the species referenced is listed onCITES Appendix I, II, III or non-listed as of May 2020. Status updatesto CITES-listed species can be found through the Checklist of CITES KRISTA LYONS/ WWFSpecies (http://checklist.cites.org).2 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
INTRODUCTIONGLOSSARYCasein: a protein found within mammalian milkCementum: a layer surrounding the dentine of tooth and tusk rootsDentine: a mineralized dental tissue which normally comprises themajority of the tooth massFT-IR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy): a non-destructivetechnique for the chemical analysis of materials based upon molecularinteraction with infrared radiation. The analytical product of thistechnique is expressed in an interferogram.Haversian systems / canals: a series of canals through which fluidflows in compact boneLingual surfaces: surfaces towards the tongueNetsuke: a small carved ornament, especially of ivory or wood, worn aspart of Japanese traditional dress as a toggle by which an article maybe attached to the sash of a kimonoPulp cavity: the innermost part of a tooth which contains organic softtissue called pulpProboscidea: the Order in which elephants and their extinct relatives(e.g., mammoths and mastodons) are grouped together by biologistsand paleontologists. A member of this Order is referred to as aproboscidean.Schreger lines: a diagnostic morphological feature seen in elephantand mammoth ivory cross-sectionsScrimshaw: engraved or shallowly carved bone or ivory, traditionally onwhale teethTaphonomic state: state of decay and fossilizationTusk interstitial zone (TIZ): an area of growth convergence at thecenter of the tooth/tusk for the developing dentineTusk nerve: the nerve and associated micro-canal that runslongitudinally through the center of a tuskIDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 3
INTRODUCTIONWHAT IS IVORY?FIGURE 1.1Ó Figure 1.1 Diagram of tusk morphology.The word “ivory” was traditionally applied only to the tusks of elephants.However, the chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is thesame regardless of the species of origin, and trade in certain teeth and tusksother than elephant is well-established and widespread. Therefore, theterm “ivory” can correctly be applied to any mammalian tooth or tusk ofcommercial interest that is large enough to be carved or scrimshawed.Teeth and tusks (a specific type of tooth) have the same origins. Teeth arespecialized structures primarily adapted for processing food. Tusks, which areextremely large teeth projecting beyond the lips, have evolved to perform avariety of specialized functions. The teeth of most mammals consist of a root,a neck, and a crown. A tusk consists of a root and the tusk proper. Teeth and4 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
INTRODUCTIONtusks have the same physical structures: Pulp cavity, dentine, cementum, andenamel (Figure 1.1). The innermost area is the pulp cavity. The pulp cavity is aspace within the tooth that in life contains organic soft tissue called pulp.Odontoblastic cells line the pulp cavity and are responsible for the productionof dentine. Dentine, which is the main component of carved ivory objects,forms a thick layer around the pulp cavity and comprises the bulk of mostteeth and tusks. Dentine is a mineralized connective tissue with an organicmatrix of collagenous proteins. The inorganic component of dentine consistsof hydroxyapatite with the general formula Ca10 (PO4)6(CO3)H2O. Dentinecontains microscopic structures called dentineal tubules, which are microcanals that radiate outward through the dentine from the pulp cavity to thecementum border. These canals have different configurations in differentteeth and tusks, and can be taxonomically informative.Exterior to the dentine lies the cementum layer. Cementum forms a layersurrounding the dentine of tooth and tusk roots. Its main function is toadhere the tooth and tusk root to the mandible and maxilla. Incremental linesare commonly seen in cementum.Enamel, the hardest animal tissue, covers the surface of the tooth or tuskthat receives the most wear, such as the tip or crown. Ameloblasts areresponsible for the formation of enamel and are lost after the enamel processis complete. Enamel exhibits a prismatic structure with prisms that runperpendicular to the crown or tip. Enamel prism patterns can have taxonomicand functional significance.IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 5
INTRODUCTIONTooth and tusk ivory can be carved into an almost infinite variety of shapesand objects. Carved ivory has been observed in the form of netsukes, jewelry,flatware handles, furniture inlays, and piano keys. Additionally, tusks and teeth(e.g., warthog and sperm whale) can be scrimshawed or superficially carved,thus retaining their original shapes as morphologically recognizable objects.The identification of ivory and ivory substitutes can be accomplished usingphysical, chemical, or genetic techniques. Since the first publication of thisguide, advances in methods in forensic genetics have revolutionized thetoolsets available to scientists identifying ivory in a law enforcement context.However, these techniques typically require expensive instrumentationand extensive training in genetics and biochemistry. The approach takenhere focuses on the identification of ivory using the visual macroscopicand microscopic physical characteristics of ivory in combination with asimple chemical test using ultraviolet light. With some basic training, manyivory pieces are readily identifiable to species based on visually evidentmorphological characters. For ivory pieces lacking species diagnosticmorphological characters, genetic analyses can be powerful tools intheir identification.6 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
INTRODUCTIONPROCEDURE FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OFIVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTESThe following is the basic procedure we use to morphologically identify ivoryand ivory substitutes. These steps are simple to follow, and the morphologicalcharacters we describe and illustrate are easy to learn. However, as biologicalstructures, teeth exhibit variability. Training, experience, and access to adiverse comparative research collection of raw and carved ivory specimensare important factors to consider when identifying ivory. As technologycontinues to advance, one must also remain current on novel processesand materials used as ivory substitutes. In many cases, the first steps in thisidentification procedure can exclude these substitute materials:1. Examine the object using long-wave ultraviolet light (we use365 nm). The chemical composition of ivory, other teeth, and bones(hydroxyapatite) is such that it fluoresces brightly under long-waveultraviolet light. In contrast, most plastics and resins appear darklycolored, dull purple or dark blue when examined under long-waveultraviolet light (Figures 1.2A and 1.2B). This simple step shouldbe conducted with comparison to known references of ivory/boneand known plastic/resin material. It can be used to quickly screenfor objects of potential biological origin (in this case, ivory/tooth/bone). Note: long-wave ultraviolet radiation is hazardous to theeyes. Never look directly into a UV light.IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 7
INTRODUCTION2. Examine the object for the presence of significant diagnosticmorphological features (see flow chart pages 10–11).3. If Schreger angles are present (described and illustrated in detailbelow), see the section of this guide on elephant and mammoth tusks(pages 12–27).4. If no specific identification is suggested by steps 1-3, considersubmitting the object to a laboratory for instrumental analysis.FIGURE 1.2AFIGURE 1.2BÓ Collection of objects suspected of being made from ivory. Figure 1.2B shows the reaction of theobjects to long-wave UV light (365 nm). Only the hair comb has UV fluorescence characteristic ofhydroxyapatite. Top – plastic letter opener. Clockwise from top left – casein nail buffer case; caseinbutton; resin turtle carving; resin whale tooth; resin lion tooth; ivory hair comb; resin dragon.Note: Long-wave ultraviolet radiation ishazardous to the eyes. Never look directlyinto a UV light.8 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
INTRODUCTIONCLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF SELECTEDCOMMERCIAL IVORIESTABLE 1SourceModified istic(10x)EnamelElephant(Asian & African)Upper incisorsAverage Schregerangles 100 incross-sectionMammothUpper incisorsAverage Schregerangles 100 incross-sectionWalrus tuskUpper caninesSecondarydentine in crosssectionTip, worn awayWalrus teethAll teethCementum ringsin cross-section;hypercementosisTip, may be wornOrca/SpermWhaleAll teethDentine rings incross-sectionTipNarwhalUpper canineSpiral; hollowcenter in crosssectionTip, worn awayHippopotamusUpper caninesOval cross-section;angular TIZFine concentriclines in crosssectionLongitudinalbandHippopotamusLower caninesTriangularcross-section;angular TIZFine concentriclines in crosssectionLongitudinalbandHippopotamusLower incisorsPeg-shaped; smallTIZ (dot only)Fine concentriclines in crosssectionNoneWarthogUpper caninesSquared crosssection; linear TIZFine concentriclines in crosssectionLongitudinalbandTip, worn awayIDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 9
PROCESS FOR IDENTIFYING COMMONLYOBSERVED IVORY IN TRADE BASED ONCROSS-SECTION MORPHOLOGYSchreger linesNOSecondary dentineYESNOOrder ProboscideaAverage of five outerSchreger angles 100 100 ANDANDConsideration oftaphonomyProminent concentricdentine ringsNOFine, concentric dentinelines/bands(may require 10x lens)NOExtinct proboscidean(e.g., Mammuthus)Extant proboscidean(Elephas or Loxodonta)Evidence of bloodvascularization(e.g., Haversian system)YESBone*NO?**Instrumental analysis may be requiredfor further identification10 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
The following chart assumes that the item under examination produces fluorescenceunder UV light that is consistent with hydroxyapatite. If the item does not fluoresce in a manner consistent with hydroxyapatite, it likely represents an ivorysubstitute and instrumental analyses are recommended.YESOdobenus rosmarus(walrus)Prominent whitetransition ring,hollow centerMonodon monoceros(narwhal)Thick cementum,round/oval shapePhyseter macrocephalus(sperm whale)Thin cementum,rectangular shapeOrcinus orca(orca)YESYESYESYESHippopotamidae orSuidaeLinear TIZ and“waisted” shapePhacochoerus(warthog)Small or angularTIZ and round ortriangular shapeHippopotamidaeLarge sizeHippopotamusamphibius**(hippopotamus)**See text for discussion of thepygmy hippopotamusIDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 11
ELEPHANTANDMAMMOTHTUSKSCITES Listings (as of 2020)Loxodonta africanaAppendix I, except the populations of Botswana,Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe, which areincluded in Appendix II subject to Annotation 2Appendix IExtinct, non-CITES listed STEVE MORELLO / WWFElephas maximusMammuthus12 IDENTIFICATIONGUIDEFORFORIVORYAND IVORYSUBSTITUTES12IDENTIFICATIONGUIDEIVORYAND IVORYSUBSTITUTES
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSModern (extant) elephants and their extinct relatives (e.g., mammothsand mastodons, among others) are grouped together by biologists andpaleontologists in the Order Proboscidea. The most common proboscideanivory in the wildlife trade comes from the two upper incisors of extantelephants. The international and domestic commercial trade in African andAsian elephant ivory (Loxodonta africana, Elephas maximus, respectively) ishighly regulated, and in many instances is illegal due to prohibitions basedon domestic legislation or CITES listing status.Ivory from the extinct mammoth species Mammuthus primigenius (one ofmany species of mammoths) is also commonly observed in trade. Bruemmer(1989) has estimated that in the last 350 years, over 7,000 tons of mammothivory have been recovered and placed in trade, and Vereshchagin (1974)estimates that over 550,000 tons of mammoth tusks are still buried in Siberia.Because the mammoth’s prehistoric range included Alaska and Siberia, thetusks of mammoths found in permafrost can be well-preserved, and thecolor and condition can resemble modern elephant ivory. Mammoth tusksIDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 13
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSthat have been deposited in soil, on the other hand, often exhibit blue tobrown staining, depending on the burial conditions, which can facilitatedistinguishing them from extant elephant.Ivory from mastodons has also been found in paleontological environments,but of the thousands of mastodon tusks uncovered in North America, onlytwo tusks were pristine enough to have the appearance of modern elephantivory (Personal Communication. D. Fisher, July 9, 2018). As such, mastodonivory can generally be excluded from consideration when identifyingproboscidean ivory in the wildlife trade.In proboscidean tusks, enamel is only present on the tusk tip of young animals,and is soon worn off. The full cross-section of proboscidean tusks is eitherrounded or oval (Figure 2.1). Dentine composes 95 percent of the tusk andsometimes displays broad concentric bands, called Owen’s lines. Cementumcovers the exterior of the tusk and can present a layered appearance.14 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSIDENTIFICATION OF ELEPHANT ANDMAMMOTH TUSKSIntact and complete elephant tusks are characterized by their shape and size.Historically, elephant tusks were extremely large. However, in part due to thecontinued illegal harvesting of ivory, the average tusk size in African elephantsis under rapid decline (Chiyo et al. 2015). Whole mammoth tusks are largeand have asymmetrical curvature. These rarer whole tusks also generallyexhibit more degraded taphonomic states, and are not typically confusedwith those of modern elephants. Other materials, including hippopotamusteeth, warthog tusks, bone, resin, and plastic, are often used to craft itemsthat resemble elephant tusks. These look-alikes can be easily distinguished bycareful examination and analysis as described in this book.IDENTIFICATION OF CARVEDELEPHANT IVORYDetermining if a carved ivory object (Figure 2.2) is from a proboscidean sourceis based on the presence of a diagnostic morphological feature seen in elephantand mammoth ivory cross-sections called “Schreger lines”. Sir Richard Owenin 1845 (Owen 1845) first described these lines as “curvilinear”, “decussation”and “lozenge”, but Espinoza and Mann (1993) first used the term “Schregerpattern” to describe these morphological features as a tool to distinguish theivory of extant elephants from those of mammoths. The histogenesis anddevelopment of the Schreger pattern is described by Virag (2012) and Albericet al. (2017), and is produced by the expression of sinusoidal dentineal tubules.IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 15
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSCementumDentineSchregerlinesÓ Figure 2.1 Typical image of a cross-section of an elephant tusk. The exterior is composed ofcementum layers which surround the exterior of the tusk. The most abundant componentis the dentine, which in this photograph shows the angular Schreger lines. The apex of theangles point toward the cementum layers. The oval interior is the space occupied by thepulp in a living elephant, and therefore can be described as the pulp cavity.Ó Figure 2.2 Three examples of typical ivory netsukes showing the small details of theseminiature carvings.16 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSSince a carved ivory object is three dimensional, a careful examination of theitem will often reveal a location where the carving exposes a cross-sectionsurface. Schreger lines have been described as cross-hatchings, engineturnings or stacked chevrons in the elephant dentine. Schreger lines canbe divided into two groups: 1) conspicuous lines that are adjacent to thecementum, which we refer to as “the outer Schreger lines”, and 2) the faintlydiscernible Schreger lines found surrounding the tusk nerve (Figure 2.1).The angles formed by the intersection of the outer Schreger lines are measuredto distinguish between extinct from extant proboscideans, whereas the “theinner Schreger lines” are not helpful in classifying the taxonomic source ofivory (Figure 2.1).In order to make taxonomic determinations, the orientation of the Schregerangles is critical. When examining a proboscidean ivory cross-section, thecementum layer surrounds the periphery. Adjacent to the cementum, theSchreger lines intersect to form either 1) concave angles (which resemblelancet or gothic doorway arches) with the apex (point of the angle) pointingtoward the cementum, or 2) convex angles formed by the outer Schregerlines, where the apex (point of the angle) points toward the tusk center. Thedatabase created by Espinoza, et al. (1990) and Espinoza and Mann (1993)measured both outer concave and outer convex Schreger angles when thecementum was observable. These authors obtained reference ivory from27 elephants and 27 mammoths. For each specimen, five concave Schregerangles were measured, and five convex Schreger angles were measured; theresulting averages were calculated (Figures 2.3 and 2.4). In total, 270 angleswere measured in each taxonomic group.IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 17
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSModern elephants exhibit a Schreger angle average greater than 100 (Figure 2.3), whereas the average for mammoth is less than 100 (Figures2.4 and 2.5). Averages of both concave and convex angles were 100 forall 27 elephants, and 100 for all 27 mammoths. Accordingly, the averagemeasurement of either concave or convex angles (n 5) is useful forseparating extant elephant ivory from that of mammoth.CementumSchreger linesÓ Figure 2.3 Close up of an extant elephant tusk cross-section showing the measurement results of theSchreger angles. The range of measurement is 109 to 142 . The average Schreger angle measurementis 122.6 . Notice that the apex of the angles measured either faced the cementum or the pulp cavity.18 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSCementumSchreger linesÓ Figure 2.4 Close up of an extinct mammoth tusk cross-section showing the measurement resultsof the Schreger angles. The range of measurement is 71 to 81 . The average Schreger anglemeasurement is 74.2 . Notice that the apex of the angles measured either faced the cementum orthe pulp cavity.IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 19
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSThe classification of proboscidean taxa based on Schreger angle measurementhas been corroborated by Fisher, et al. (1998), Palombo and Villa (2001) andÁbelová (2008).Table 2.1 below shows that the directionality of the Schreger angle does not affectthe conclusion. A reasonable strategy when examining an ivory object is to combineconcave and convex angles, especially when the size of the object is small.TABLE 2.1Concave anglesConvex anglesAll angles combined(apex facingcementum)(apex facingtusk center)(n 540)131.0 117.3 124.2 105.0 – 162.0 96.0 – 149.0 96.0 – 162.0 74.8 72.7 73.7 42.0 – 115.0 39.0 – 115.0 Elephants:averagerangeMammoths:averagerange39.0 – 115.0 1Ábelová (2008) recorded individual Schreger angle measurements 120 in mammoth.1 FIGURE 2.5ElephantsMammoths0306090120150Ó Figure 2.5 Box-and-whisker plot of the Schreger angles measuredfrom elephant and mammoth ivory.20 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES180
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSHOW TO MEASURE THE SCHREGER ANGLES1) Schreger angles can be captured using digital photography or bycapturing the image with a photocopy machine.2) Orient the image so that the cementum is noted (See Figures 2.6A,2.6B, and 2.7).3) Make at least five angle measurements of either the concave orconvex angles and calculate the average. If the image is digital,there are many imaging tools that have a built-in angle calculator.If the image was captured on a photocopy machine, then aprotractor is needed for angle calculation.4) If the average of the angles measured is greater than 100 , and thetaphonomic state of the dentine does not show degradation (seenote below), then it is reasonable to infer that the object is from anelephant. Conversely, if the average of the angles measured is lessthan 100 , it is reasonable to infer that the object is froma mammoth.IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 21
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSFigure 2.6ASchreger linesFigure 2.6BCementumSchreger lines22 IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH TUSKSÑ Figure 2.6A Ivory figurine showing the presence of Schreger lines on diverse surfaces of the carving.These lines confirm that the object has a proboscidean origin.Ñ Figure 2.6B Same figurine from Figure 2.6A, but in this image the base is shown. Careful examinationshows the cementum layers, and the Schreger angles adjacent to it are measurable. Analysis showedthis object is extant elephant ivory.Fi
INTRODUCTION IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES 1 The information contained within this book was originally developed for the wildlife law enforcement community in connection with its mandate to enforce international endangered species trade regulations and restrictions. Thousands of copies of previous editions of this
ivory, first to Japan in 1999 and then to Japan and China in 2008. Existing legal domestic markets in countries such as Japan continue to fuel the demand for ivory. Japan’s domestic ivory controls have failed to comply with the requirements of CITES to effectively control the trade in ivory and prevent poached ivory from entering the domestic .
Q15. What is the reason that Japan does not close its domestic ivory market? Does it make sense for Japan to continue ivory trade even by creating a complex control system? . 20 Q16. When closing the domestic ivory market has become mainstream in the international community, is it reasonable to say that Japan's policy of maintaining a legal .
trade of elephant ivory, which has inevitably altered the way in which ivory is purchased in the region. China’s bordering markets have had their own legal and illegal ivory trade since long before the ban and in some cases, this is driven by local demand. In other cases, often in tourist spots, products are aimed at
Demand for ivory escalates, particularly through Central and East Africa, and poaching becomes rampant. 1976 Total exports of raw ivory from Africa are thought to be 991 tonnes, accounting for the deaths of an estimated 55 000 elephants a year. 1976–1980 Hong Kong and Japan import 83 per cent of Africa’s raw ivory. 1978
Pediatric Dentistry/ 4th year/ lec.6 6 According to patency Patent – Ivory No. 1 Nonpatent – Celluloid crown form According to use Universal – Ivory No. 8, Toffelmire Unilateral – Ivory No. 1 Recent Modifications in Matrix Sectional matrix: This system is easy to place, gives a large preparation area thus reducing the working time.
result of forensic research conducted by the United States National Fish & Wildlife Forensics Laboratory, located in Ashland, Oregon. The goal of the research was to develop a visual and non-destructive means of tentatively distinguishing clearly legal ivory from suspected illegal ivory at p
RP 2K, Second Edition RP 2L, Third Edition RP 2M, First Edition Bul 2N, First Edition RP 2P, Second Edition RP 2Q, Second Edition RP 2R, First Edition RP 2T, First Edition Bul 2U, First Edition Bul 2V, First Edition Spec 2W, First Edition RP 2X, First Edition, with Supp 1 Spec 2Y, First Edition
tank; 2. Oil composition and API gravity; 3. Tank operating characteristics (e.g., sales flow rates, size of tank); and 4. Ambient temperatures. There are two approaches to estimating the quantity of vapor emissions from crude oil tanks. Both use the gas-oil ratio (GOR) at a given pressure and temperature and are expressed in standard cubic feet per barrel of oil (scf per bbl). This process is .
