Egyptology And Ancient Near Eastern Studies

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FACULTY OF ORIENTAL STUDIESUNIVERSITY OF OXFORDEGYPTOLOGY AND ANCIENT NEAREASTERN STUDIESA handbook for Undergraduates reading Egyptologyand Ancient Near Eastern StudiesACADEMIC YEAR 2013–20141

CONTENTSIntroduction3Oriental Studies at Oxford3The BA in Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies5About Egyptian6About Akkadian7Outline of the Course9Teaching10Further study resources, internships, and travel abroadStructure of the academic years1112First year12Second year14Third year17Examinations20Teaching and research staff23Joint Consultative Committee24Resources for EANES in Oxford24Set texts (or Prescribed texts)Appendix A: Faculty Information28382

INTRODUCTIONThis handbook gives outline information about the BA course in Egyptology and AncientNear Eastern Studies. It is designed both as a source of information and as a guide to othersources of information. We hope that it will be particularly useful to you as you begin thecourse and when you start to study a second subject in your second year, but we also hope itwill be a valuable source of information throughout the whole three years of the BA.Please read the booklet carefully.Comments and criticism of the handbook are always welcome; they should be sent to DrJacob Dahl, EANES Subject Group Co-ordinator, Oriental Institute, Pusey Lane.Faculty handbooks are available on the Oriental Studies Faculty’s website; this one is athttp://www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/nme/eanes-hbk.pdf . Updates may be posted there; you can alsofind a great deal of related documentation through the website.Numbers on the course tend to be small and you see the teaching staff very frequently. Youare also welcome to come and discuss the course and your needs at other times. Because ofthis frequent and close contact, the information in this handbook is kept quite brief. If youneed more information or help, come and see one of us.You will receive much other documentation when you arrive at the University. A great dealof what you need to know about the running of the University is contained in the Proctors’and Assessor’s Memorandum. At all points, if you need information or advice, be prepared toask the teaching staff, fellows, and administrative staff in your college, or fellow students.ORIENTAL STUDIES AT OXFORDOriental Studies embraces the study of Oriental cultures from prehistoric times to the present.People are becoming increasingly aware of these civilizations through travel, publications,and rising general interest. The faculty’s courses offer the opportunity to learn in depth aboutthe ancient and modern traditions of these cultures. Many students are able to apply methodsdeveloped for the study of other languages, history, and literature to these challenging newsubjects. Some enter Oriental Studies from quite different backgrounds, including music andscience.The courses present the major traditions of the regions studied and, where appropriate, theirmodern development. All courses include language, literature, history, and culture, and thereis a wide range of options in such fields as art and archaeology, history, literature,philosophy, religion, and modern social studies.Through its long-standing traditions and more recent gifts, Oxford has unparalleled resourcesfor Oriental Studies. The Bodleian Library has a magnificent collection of Oriental booksand manuscripts built up since the seventeenth century. The Oriental Institute, opened in3

1961, is the centre where most teaching is done, acting as a focus for everyone working andstudying in the field; it has a lending library of some 80,000 books. There are associatedinstitutions for the Modern Middle East, for Hebrew and Jewish Studies, for ModernJapanese Studies, and for Chinese Studies. Adjacent to the Oriental Institute is theAshmolean Museum, which houses superb collections of objects used in the teaching of mostbranches of Oriental art and archaeology; and the Sackler Library of the Ancient World,which houses the principal collection of books on Egyptology and Ancient Near EasternStudies, as well as general archaeology, Classical civilization, and Western and Eastern Art.The Griffith Institute (opened in 1939 and now housed in a wing of the Sackler Librarycomplex) has unique resources for Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies, includingextensive archives and a publication series.Most of the teaching and research in EANES is carried out in the Griffith Institute wing ofthe Sackler Library complex.Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies at Oxford: backgroundEgyptian civilization acquired its characteristic forms, including the hieroglyphic writingsystem, by 3000 BCE, and continued to develop into the early centuries of the Common Era,long after Egypt had been conquered by Alexander the Great and subsequently absorbed intothe Roman Empire. The latest written material in ancient Egyptian dates to the 4th and 5thcenturies CE.In Oxford, Egyptology has been represented since the appointment of F. Ll. Griffith asReader, later Professor, at the beginning of the 20th century. Griffith subsequently foundedthe Griffith Institute in his will; the Institute, which is a research body, opened in 1939.Successors of Griffith in the professorship were T. Eric Peet, Battiscombe Gunn, JaroslavČerný, and John Barns. The current holder is John Baines. In 1980 a second post inEgyptology and Coptic was created, and is held by Mark Smith with the title of Professor. Anadditional post in Egyptology was created in 2005 and was taken up by Elizabeth Frood. Afurther recent research appointment is that of Robert Simpson, who is a longstanding facultytutor, as Griffith Egyptological Fund Research Fellow. The BA in Egyptology was introducedin the 1930s and revised successively from the 1960s. The current BA in Egyptology andAncient Near Eastern Studies, which absorbs and diversifies previous course offerings, wasintroduced in 1998.Ancient Mesopotamia (approximately modern Iraq) is the source of a wealth of texts in theSumerian and Akkadian languages and cuneiform script. The script system emerged in about3350 BCE and was developed by the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. Akkadiancontinued as a learned language in Mesopotamia under the Greeks and the Parthians until the1st century CE.Assyriology, the study of these ancient cultures, began at Oxford with the appointment ofArchibald Henry Sayce as Professor of Assyriology in 1891. Subsequent post holders withthe title of Professor have been Stephen Langdon, Oliver Gurney, and Marc Van DeMieroop. Other post holders in the field have included Reginald Campbell Thompson as4

Reader, and C. J. Ball and Peter Hulin as Lecturers. Two key posts were established in 1987,a University Lecturership in Akkadian, filled by Jeremy Black (1987-2004), and a ShillitoFellowship in Assyriology, filled by Stephanie Dalley (1987-2007). Frances Reynolds wasappointed to the long-term Shillito Fellowship in Assyriology in 2006, after holding aDepartmental Lecturership. The most recent appointment in Assyriology is that of JacobDahl, who took up the University Lecturership in Assyriology in October 2008.The BA in Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern StudiesThe BA in Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies is a three-year undergraduatedegree course that offers a wide range of options in the civilizations, history, literature, andmaterial culture of Egypt and/or the Ancient Near East, approached in the first instancethrough the medium of the ancient languages and writing systems. A range of routes throughthe degree course are possible (the degree can be accessed through either of two UCAScodes: Q400 BA/Egy or Q401 BA/EANES). Students begin with the study of eitherAkkadian (the ancient Semitic language of Mesopotamia) or Egyptian. In your second year,you add a second subject. This may be a language, which can be Egyptian or Akkadian(depending on your choice of first language), or alternatively another language of the region.Those normally available are Coptic, Sumerian, Old Iranian, Biblical and Mishnaic Hebrew,Aramaic and Syriac, Arabic, and Hittite. The last of those may not be available every year.Depending on the languages chosen, different cultural and historical perspectives can beemphasized, making the course adaptable to the interests of each student. Some combinationsof first and second languages are more suitable than others, and you should consult yourteachers before making a choice. In addition, the BA in Classics and Oriental Studies(Oriental Studies with Classics) allows various combinations of EANES as a main subjectwith Egyptian or Akkadian as the first language and Classical languages (mainly Greek).This is a three-year course with the study of the Classical language(s) taking place in thesecond and third years. Students can either apply for this degree or switch to it after EANESPrelims at the end of the first year.As an alternative to a second language, it is possible to take EANES with Archaeology andAnthropology as a second subject (this is listed separately in the regulations because it is nota language). This combination complements the main language and civilization in a differentway from the option of a second language, offering the opportunity to study in greater depthdisciplines which are closely related to those used for much work on Egypt and the AncientNear East.For students who are reading the BA in Oriental Studies with Arabic as their main subject,one of the options they can choose as an additional language is Akkadian; this is studied inthe third and fourth years. Students with Hebrew as their main subject can choose eitherAkkadian or Egyptian as their additional language; the chosen language is studied in thesecond and third years.Students whose main subject is Classics can take Egyptology (Egyptian language) or AncientNear Eastern Studies (Akkadian language) as an additional subject. This degree is the BA inClassics and Oriental Studies (Classics with Oriental Studies). Classical Moderations (afterfive terms) are followed by Egyptology or Ancient Near Eastern Studies as a subsidiary in5

the third and fourth years (four-year course). Students can either apply for this degree orswitch to it after Classical Moderations subject to acceptance by EANES tutors.ABOUT EGYPTIANWhere was it used?Egyptian was the sole written language of ancient Egypt from the invention of the script untilafter 2000 BC, and throughout Egyptian history it was overwhelmingly dominant. It is one ofthe few languages that were regularly written in hieroglyphic script. The Egyptian languageand script were also used in ancient Nubia and Sudan, as far upstream as the confluence ofthe Blue and the White Nile.What is its history?Egyptian is recorded in the form of continuous language from about 2700 BCE andcontinued in use for about three millennia, developing through stages known as Old, Middle,and Late Egyptian, and Demotic, directly into Coptic (the language of Christian Egypt, in usefrom the early centuries CE). Coptic ceased to be a spoken language in about 1000 CE, butsurvives in the liturgy of the Coptic Church in Egypt. During the second and first millenniaBCE the most prestigious form of the language was Middle Egyptian, which was retained inuse as a learned language (like Latin) long after it had given way to later forms for ordinaryuse.What type of language is it?Egyptian forms a separate branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which is represented byhundreds of languages in five other principal branches, from Berber in North Africa, throughlanguages in West, Central, and East Africa, to Semitic in East Africa and Western Asia. Thestructure of Egyptian underwent a transformation from Old Egyptian (third millennium BCE)to Coptic (first millennium CE). It is not highly inflected, but changed during the secondmillennium BCE from a ‘synthetic’ structure with verbal forms constructed through suffixesto an ‘analytic’ form in which conjugations were placed before the verb. In Egyptian, as inSemitic languages, most words are constructed around roots of three consonants.How is it written?The Egyptian script has two principal forms: hieroglyphs, used on monuments, and hieratic,the cursive form written in ink for everyday purposes. The writing system is essentiallyconsonantal, with at most minimal indication of vowels. Hieroglyphic signs are pictorial, butare used in several different ways: as phonograms (sound-signs) that may write one to threeconsonants, as logograms (whole-word signs), and as determinatives (classifiers that come atthe ends of words). The pronunciation is fundamentally unknown, and words are pronouncedin discussion in a conventionalized form. Coptic used a fully alphabetic script written inGreek letters, with the addition of half a dozen signs derived from Demotic, a furtherdevelopment of hieratic that was the latest form of the indigenous cursive script.What is written in Egyptian?Inscriptions were integral to most works of art in Egypt, and there is an enormous range ofwritten material, mainly on stone. This includes captions to depicted figures, biographies,historical and religious inscriptions, and extensive collections of compositions such as thePyramid Texts and the Book of the Dead. Cursive writing in ink on papyrus and other media6

was dominant in ancient times but is much less well preserved; it includes large numbers ofadministrative documents, letters, and literary texts. The genres of Egyptian writing do notresemble closely those of the Western world; for example, many royal inscriptions might beclassified as literary tales rather than factual reports. This difference in character is one of themany challenges offered by the study of Egyptian texts.Research and discoveriesEgyptology is a very active field. Excavations and field survey relating to all the mainperiods and types of site continue throughout Egypt and northern Sudan. The study ofmaterial in museum collections is another major aspect of research and covers both artefactsand texts. Increasingly sophisticated studies are devoted to topics ranging from language,through technical fields such as medicine, to literature, art, and archaeology. Egyptology isalso becoming more and more integrated into the broader study of non-Western civilizations.Egypt in the world beyondEgypt was culturally influential in the Eastern Mediterranean from no later than the secondmillennium BCE, and was also an important participant in the Graeco-Roman world. Itsreligious cults in particular influenced the Roman empire. In Western tradition Egypt wasseen, through Classical writings, as a source of ancient wisdom and was significant in thedevelopment of the Renaissance. The role of Egypt in European culture is a field of study ofits own, while archaeological work, together with looting, has created major museumcollections in many countries. In modern Egypt and Sudan, the ancient tradition is seen asintegral to history and is a major factor in economy and politics, especially in Egypt.ABOUT AKKADIANWhere was it used?Akkadian was the principal language of ancient Mesopotamia (approximately correspondingto modern Iraq and much of modern Syria). It was spoken by the Assyrians in the north andthe Babylonians in the south and survived as a written language until the 1st century AD.Akkadian was also used as an international diplomatic language in the Late Bronze Age in anarea stretching from modern Turkey to Egypt and from the Levant to modern Iran.What is its history?Akkadian is the world’s oldest written Semitic language and the first connected texts (in OldAkkadian) date from about 2400 BC. Two main dialects of Akkadian developed in thesecond and first millennia BCE, Assyrian and Babylonian. A purely literary dialect, calledStandard Babylonian, was also used for certain types of texts, including the Epic ofGilgamesh. Peripheral Akkadian, found in texts from sites in Syria, Turkey and Egypt,displays local influences. During the latter half of the first millennium BC Akkadian wasreplaced by Aramaic as a spoken language but it continued to be used as a written languageuntil the 1st century AD.What type of language is it?Akkadian is a Semitic language and belongs to the Afroasiatic language family. OtherSemitic languages include Arabic, Aramaic, and Hebrew. Akkadian is the principal member7

of the East Semitic language group. The structure of Akkadian is quite similar to Arabic(e.g., case endings -u, -i, -a; verbal system with 12 different ‘forms’; regular construction ofnouns from roots of three consonants), but the range of consonants is simpler. Sumerian, anearly isolate language of Mesopotamia, influenced Akkadian (e.g., main verb regularly endsthe clause). Akkadian varied over its long history and across the wide area where it was usedbut Assyrian and Babylonian were the main spoken dialects.How is it written?Akkadian was written in cuneiform (wedge-shaped) script which developed from an initialpictorial stage from c 3350 BC. This script was used to write Sumerian, an unrelatedlanguage, before it was adopted and adapted to write Akkadian. Most cuneiform texts wereimpressed onto clay tablets with a reed stylus but other media include carved stoneinscriptions. Akkadian was written with a mixture of syllabic signs, logograms (whole-wordsigns), and determinatives (classifiers, e.g., for the names of places and birds). Consonantsand vowels were indicated but the pronunciation is reconstructed.What is written in Akkadian? A vast and varied textual recordLiterature, e.g., the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Babylonian Epic of Creation, Ishtar’sDescent to the Underworld, hymns, prayers, and incantationsHistoriographical texts, e.g., annals of the Neo-Assyrian kings Sargon, Sennacherib,and Ashurbanipal, chronicles of Babylonia under its kings Nebuchadnezzar andNabonidus, and royal inscriptionsCollections of laws, e.g., the Laws of HammurapiLetters, both private and royal, e.g., the royal correspondence of Babylonian andAssyrian kings with the Egyptian kings Amenhotep III and IV (likely father ofTutankhamun)Legal and economic texts, including property salesScholarly texts, e.g., omen collections, astronomical texts, medical texts, magicaltexts, ritual texts, and commentariesResearch and discoveriesAssyriology is still a relatively young subject and researchers are active across a wide rangeof specialisms in fields including language and textual studies, iconography, history, ancientmedicine and astronomy. Much remains to be discovered about ancient Mesopotamia: fromexcavation and from studying artefacts in museum collections, including the many cuneiformtablets that are waiting to be read and sometimes even catalogued. There are key museumcollections in the Middle East, as well as Berlin, Paris, London, and the U.S.A. TheAshmolean Museum in Oxford holds a significant Mesopotamian collection.Legacy of MesopotamiaMesopotamian culture continued to develop throughout the first millennium BC includingthe Persian, Hellenistic, and Parthian periods. Mesopotamia exercised a considerableinfluence on the Classical world, and hence the West, as well as on cultures in the East.Before the rediscovery of ancient Mesopotamia through excavation and the decipherment ofcuneiform in the 19th century AD, Western perceptions were shaped by Classical andBiblical traditions. However, with a wealth of evidence now available from archaeology and8

texts Mesopotamia’s fundamental role is being increasingly recognized in fields includingliterature, astronomy, astrology and medicine.OUTLINE OF THE COURSEThe BA in Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies is designed to be both wide-rangingand flexible. It is a three-year course covering all principal aspects of the study of the fieldwhile allowing concentration on particular areas of interest. The skills involved arecomparable with those needed for other language-focused courses in the humanities, but theirapplication is rather broader. While the core of the teaching is in language and texts, theobjective is to penetrate the civilizations and to use written sources where appropriate as thepoint of departure for studying a wide range of phenomena. It should also be borne in mindthat all the texts that are studied are preserved on ancient surfaces that were recoveredthrough fieldwork and are archaeological artefacts in their own right.For those who have chosen Akkadian as their first language, the focus is on study of theprincipal ancient language of Mesopotamia; emphasis is also placed on knowledge of theliterature, cultural and political history, and archaeology of the area. This is supplemented bystudy of a second language, which may be Egyptian, Sumerian, Hittite, Old Iranian, Biblicaland Mishnaic Hebrew, Aramaic and Syriac, Classics (generally Ancient Greek), or Arabic –together with its associated literature, culture, and history. If Egyptian is chosen as the firstlanguage, Akkadian, Arabic, Aramaic and Syriac, Classics, Coptic, or Biblical and MishnaicHebrew are the possible choices as second language. Both with Akkadian and with Egyptian,Archaeology and Anthropology is available as an alternative subsidiary to the secondlanguage.No prior knowledge of any ancient language is expected. In addition to the language classes,there are lecture courses on all principal aspects of ancient Near Eastern civilization, as wellas regular essay writing. At all stages of the course, emphasis is laid on detailed familiaritywith the primary sources, textual sources being studied in the original languages and scriptsand non-textual sources in other media. A major objective is that you should become familiarwith the use of a range of historiographical, literary-critical, and other methods forunderstanding these sources.The core objectives of the course are that you should master the script, grammar, vocabulary,and syntax of Egyptian or Akkadian, and should become acquainted over the three years withseveral different phases of Egyptian (from Old Egyptian onwards) or Akkadian (from OldBabylonian onwards); and that you should acquire a comparable, but naturally less extensive,command of a second language, or of Archaeology and Anthropology. You should acquire agood knowledge of the secondary literature, including the various aids to study (referenceworks, bibliographies, dictionaries, sign lists, etc.), and how to make best use of them.Opportunities are available to work with ancient artefacts in the Ashmolean Museum’scollections, as well as to practise reading from original inscribed objects such as cuneiformtablets or Egyptian stelae. At the same time, you should become familiar with a wide rangeof cultural institutions of the civilizations you study. Your work on texts should be seen inthis broader context of understanding key features of the civilizations. Archaeology and9

Anthropology bring cognate disciplines into the course; they are not focused specifically onthe Ancient Near East, although it is possible to take special subjects or dissertations thatbridge the different fields.TEACHINGThe teaching integrates the study of the languages, texts, cultures, histories and archaeologiesof these ancient societies. You will normally be sent a reading list in the August before thestart of your course, to encourage you to start some general reading and a little languagebased work. From the beginning of the course, you should expect to be engaged on academicstudy for a very full working week during Full Term. You will also need to do a considerableamount of work during the vacations. The course is taught by a mixture of lectures, classes,seminars, and tutorials. Tutorials normally consist of a one-to-one or small-group discussionwith a tutor of written work produced by the student.The teaching is shared among all the students in the University who are taking any particularcourse; it is not college-based. Classes also often combine undergraduate and graduatestudents. There is a considerable amount of preparation for almost all language-based classesand consequently rather less essay work than in many humanities courses; intellectualproblems are approached through work on texts as well as through essays. Independentsecondary reading, both for the texts studied in class and for lecture courses, is vital if thecourse is to have its proper value.Because there are relatively few subject handbooks or other basic study aids in your fields ofstudy, and almost all language work is conducted in class, it is essential to attend lectures andclasses unless you are unavoidably prevented from doing so. If you cannot attend, you shouldinform the teacher that you will be absent. This may be done by email, telephone, or letter.Essays are written for most of the course at a rate of three or four per term. Vacations arevital times for essay work and you need to ensure that you take away sufficient material to dothe necessary background reading and preparatory work during the vacations, as well asgetting ahead with language study or text preparation for later terms. It is very difficult tokeep abreast of work schedules if no text material has been prepared before the beginning ofterm. It is also essential to set aside time to work over and revise notes made during textreading and other language classes: this time can be lost if you do not keep your other workgoing.The vacation of the second year is also a crucial time for you to begin work on yourdissertation. The dissertation is a core component of the undergraduate degree and gives youthe opportunity to research independently a topic in which you have a particular interest,under the supervision of a member of the academic staff. The dissertation shoulddemonstrate your ability to: identify an issue or problem; design and conduct a scheme ofwork to explore that issue; work independently; assemble and analyse both primary evidenceand modern academic literature; and present a coherent set of data and cogent argumentsbased on those data.10

Further study resources, internships, and travel abroadStudents have access to the facilities of the Griffith Institute, including the purchase of itspublications at a student discount. In addition to the comprehensive collections of the SacklerLibrary, the Peet Memorial Library in Queen’s College has a valuable small Egyptologycollection to which you have access and from which you may borrow books. WolfsonCollege also houses the Jeremy Black Memorial Collection in Assyriology and a smallundergraduate library is being developed at St Benet’s Hall. Both the Sackler and the Peetlibraries are catalogued on OLIS, the University’s online catalogue, as are all the BodleianLibrary’s holdings, including many books on Egyptology and the Ancient Near East. WhileBodleian books must generally be ordered by readers in advance and read in one of therooms provided, they are useful if a book is borrowed from another library or there is otherpressure on resources. Many people find the Bodleian’s reading rooms congenial.The course does not include a compulsory period abroad, but relevant travel is recommendedto all students during their degree. If doing Egyptology, you are encouraged to visit Egypt,and if possible to take part in archaeological work either in Egypt (although this is verydifficult to arrange for undergraduates) or elsewhere. Most Egyptology students in recentyears have visited Egypt during their undergraduate careers. Visiting the Middle Eastdepends on current circumstances but there have always been areas were it is relatively easyto travel. From 2008, a number of undergraduate and graduate students in Egyptology andAncient Near Eastern Studies participated in excavation of the Bronze and Iron Age city ofZincirli in south-east Turkey (run by the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago). It ishoped that Oxford’s involvement in this project will continue. Ask your teachers for advice ifyou plan to travel to Egypt or elsewhere during your degree or if you wish to participate inexcavation projects. Colleges also often provide financial assistance for relevant travel.Students who take Archaeology and Anthropology as a second subject must undertakearchaeological fieldwork, either in the UK or abroad, during the summer of their secondyear. This is arranged by the Institute of Archaeology.Closer to home, a small number of undergraduate and graduate students each year take upsummer internships at museums and other organizations with Egyptian and Near Easterncollections, including the British Museum, the Ashmolean Museum, and the PalestineExploration Fund. Again, talk with your teachers if you would like to apply for an internship.It is possible to complete the course without reading secondary materials that are not inEnglish but much of the secondary literature on Egyptology and Ancient Near EasternStudies is in French and especially German. A reading knowledge of these languagesincreases range and options and, if you do not already have this, then you are encouraged toacquire it. The University’s Language Centre at 12 Woodstock Road offers courses and selfstudy options in French and German for reading that are open to all without charge. Theteachers of Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies can supply letters ofrecommendation that will assist in gaining a place on Language Centre courses, some ofwhich are in very heavy demand.11

STRUCTURE OF THE ACADEMIC YEARSThe description of the stages of the course which follows below is intended as a complementto the regulations printed in the Examination Regulations and the lists of set texts which arepublished for Prelims and the final examinations (known in Oxford as the Final HonourSchool or finals). In addition to these materials, bibliographies are provided for prescribedtexts, reading lists for the history and civilization courses, and detailed lists for essay topics.If you would like information about other matters, you should

Ancient Near Eastern Studies, which absorbs and diversifies previous course offerings, was introduced in 1998. Ancient Mesopotamia (approximately modern Iraq) is the source of a wealth of texts in the . (Egyptian language) or Ancient Near Eastern Studies (Akkadian language) as an additional subject. This degree is the BA in

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