LIBRARY DE49 - University Of Pittsburgh
LIBRARYDE49COMMODITIES AND STABEXX/174/1984September 1984Free reproduction authorized, with or without indication of source. Voucher copies would be appreciated.
CONTENTS1INTRODUCTIONPART ONE- COMMODITIESTHE KEY TO THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT4I. World trade in commodities4II. The vital importance of commodities to the Third7WorldIII. Not all in the same boatPART TWO- COMMODITIES AT THE HEART OF THE NORTH-SOUTH DIALOGUEI. From war to dialogueII. Hopes at Nairobi : the Integrated Programme forCommoditiesIII. Stable markets for controlled developmentPART THREE- THE COMMUNITY AND COMMODITIES IN THE LOME CONVENTIONI. Stabex- A Community initiativeII. Stabex and its machineryIII. A positive overall record after nearly 10 yearsof operationIV. Mineral products : SysminV. The Sugar Protocol810101421313234414651PART FOUR- SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF STABEXANNEXES1. Products covered by Stabex in 19842. The ACP States3. Stabex transfers from 1975 to 19824. Tables54
-I- COMMODITIES AND STABEX IN THE BEGINNING WERE PRIMARY PRODUCTS ----------Such an obvious statement might well be the beginning of aneconomic treatise and would in itself be sufficient tojustify the importance the world attaches to this question.The adjective underlines the fact that prosperity is foundedon primary products. But sometimes the foundations cen slip.This is not a new problem. Back in 1948, the Havana Charterrecognized the perversity of the raw material markets :" The conditions under which some primary commodities areproduced, exchange and consumed are such that internationaltrade in these commodities may be affected by specialdifficulties such as the tendency towards persistentdisequilibrium between production and consumption, theaccumulation of burdensome stock and pronounced fluctuationin prices. These special difficulties may have seriousadverse effects on the interests of producers and consumers,as well as widespread repercussions jeopardizing the generalpolicy of economic expansion "What is new is the importance the question took on in theseventies. The trigger was the oil crisis of 1973, when, forthe first time in history, developing countries whichexported one particular raw material succeeded in forcing on
-2-the industrialized countries something which decades ofnegotiations had failed to manage, namely a price which theyconsidered to be remunerative.The newly independent Thirdworld had realized that, if it wanted to jump on the worldtrade roundabout, the precondition for rapid economic takeoff, then it should stop selling its raw materials atknock-down prices.These, obviously, were all it had tofinance its growth in the short term.A fair price, terms of trade which were not constantlydeteriorating, was a vital demand for the developingcountries.Fair prices and guaranteed supplies were the main concern ofthe consumer countries after the war in the Middle East.There had to be a dialogue.There was going to be one, butit soon became apparent that, although the aim of stabilizingthe markets remained the same, there were many differentsituations.Who were the consumers ?What was the product hierarchy ?should be used ?occurred.Who were the producersWhat systems of regulationThese were just some of the questions thatThe variety of situations threatened to preventthe commodity problem from being globalized as the countriesof the Third world wished.Almost 10 years of North-South Dialogue have, alas, confirmedthat it is difficult to achieve really satisfactory results.Optimists will feel that the Integrated Programme forCommodities and the new product agreements are a partialsuccess and pessimists that they are a partial failure.Thepragmatic will look at the results - they are slender and thebasic problem has not been solved.The markets in fact stillfluctuate as much as they ever did and the experts now agreethat, one or two exceptional cases apart, the developingcountries'income is on the decline.
-3-The consequences are cause for concern to us all. Manydeveloping countries are threatened with financialsuffocation and the risk of chain reactions on the bankingsystem in the industrialized world is not a negligeable one.In this context, the real meaning of the various devices theEuropean Community has introduced to stabilize the exportearnings of its developing partners becomes clear. Althoughits action is only partial and not intended to solve theproblems as world level, it does have the merit of existingand being one possible avenue for more general internationalaction.
-4-PART I COMMODITIES : THE KEY TO DEVELOPMENT IN THE THIRD WORLD I.WORLD TRADE IN COMMODITIES " any product of farm, forest or fishery or any mineral,in its natural form or which has undergone such processing asis customarily required to prepare it for marketing insubstantial volume in international trade."This is how the Havana Charter describes commodities.As the figures show, raw materials represent a very importantpart of world trade- 17 % of the value of total exports fromthe industrialized and the developing countries in 1980. Addfuel (and oil, therefore) to this and the figure rises to41 %.The commonest idea is that raw materials are the Third World,but a look at the structure of trade shows there is more toit than this. In particular, it is wrong to equate theindustrialized countries with the consumers of raw materialsand the developing countries with the producers. Theindustrialized countries in fact account for almost twothirds of the value of world exports in this sector. And theexport patterns of the different groups of countries are notcomparable either. The industrialized countries of the westand the countries of the eastern block do most of theirexport trade in their own zone. But the developing countries
-5-only do a small amount of trade with each other and the bulkof their export trade, overall, is with the industrializedcountries of the west.So the developing countries tend to be equated with thesuppliers of raw materials not because they dominate theworld markets, far from it, but because they are the onlyones to be preponderant suppliers of the other two,particularly the western group.Another important aspect of North-South trade is this. Thedeveloping countries are very large importers of foodproducts and their dependence on the countries of the westhas increased considerably in this respect, particularly asfar as cereals are concerned.The North's market dominanceThe picture of the world raw material trade we have justpainted can be completed by the data for individual products.Calculations made on the basis of a statistical noteproduced by UN experts in preparation for the extraordinarygeneral assembly in April 1974 made it possible to measurethe importance of each of the three big groups of countrieson the different markets. Although this note dates back arelatively long time, its conclusions are still valid. The66 products on the UN lists can be divided into threecategories :1) The developing countries dominate the markets (18 productsfor which they account for more than 60 % of worldexports) - crude oil, coffee, sugar, rubber, cocoa, tin,tea, bauxite, groundnuts, palm oil, coconut oil, jute,groundnut oil, copra, sisal, tin ore, palm kernel oil andpalm nuts.
-6-2. The developing countries have an appreciable market (10products for which they accounts for 30-60 % of worldtrade) - petroleum products, copper, cotton, fruit, ironore, timber, oilseed cake and meal, copper ore, untreatedfertilizer and manganese ore.3. The industrialized countries of the North dominate themarkets (37 products for which they account for more than60 % of world trade) - wheat, wood pulp, pressed wood,aluminium, coal, maize, beef and veal, wool, fish, soya,tobacco, nickel, rice, milk, leather, cheese, butter,wine, barley, pigmeat, nickel ore, fur, animal oils andfats, lead, zinc, sheepmeat, bacon, soya oil, poultry,zinc ore, eggs, olive oil, lead ore, flax, linseed,cottonseed oil and linseed oil.Note that the 66 products include chrome ore, where theeastern block countries dominate the market, with 40 % ofexports. The other products for which the eastern blocaccounts for more than 15 % of world exports are coal, flax,pressed wood and timber, untreated fertilizer, cotton andmanganese ore. The eastern bloc's most important importproducts, relatively speaking, are palm nuts, linseed,cotton, sugar, barley, wheat, linseed oil, wine, untreatedfertilizer, rubber and poultry. The table based on UN expertstatistics shows that the industrialized countries of theNorth tend to have an important hold on the various worldmarkets.
-7- II.THE VITAL IMPORTANCE OF COMMODITIES TO THE THIRD WORLD The developing countries' dependance in the commoditiessector was inherited from the colonial era. That is a fact.These countries were confined to the role of purveyors of rawmaterials to the industries in the metropolis and preventedfrom developing their own processing industries, which mighthave represented unwanted competition.With independence, came the Third World's desire fortechnology and to develop its own commodities. It wanted toindustrialize.More than a quarter of a century after decolonization, therecord is far from satisfactory. The Third World as a wholeis still largely under-industrialized, it has a considerableexternal debt, it has been unable to ward off famine properlyand its share of world trade in manufactures is still small.It is still, in fact, largely dependent on its raw materialexports.These provide most of the developing countries' foreignexchange and much of the national budgets as well, via thetaxes levied on export products. This means that any majordrop in earnings may have dramatic consequences on theireconomy.It goes without saying that the developing countries areanxious to maintain their purchasing power - which conditionsall their development possibilities. A very old debate,reflecting this concern, hinges on the notion of theimprovement or the deterioration of the terms of trade.
-8-The concern of the industrialized countries - some of which,like the countries of the EEC and Japan, are dependent for alarge part of their raw materials on external sources - is toensure that their industries are supplied regularly and at areasonable cost.Here we are at the heart of a contradiction in relationsbetween the developed and the developing countries. Althoughthe former have bitter memories of the record prices of1973-1974 and are anxious to maintain raw material prices atlevels which do not threaten the balance of their externalaccounts or their growth, the latter, in theory, have onlyone way of avoiding financial suffocation and that is pushingup their export earnings, which, as we know, are almost 80 %dependent on their commodity sales. III.NOT ALL IN THE SAME BOAT Developing countries depend on commodities for their exportearnings - that is the traditional picture and it will be atrue one for a number of years to come. However, things haveevolved over the past decades, which is fortunate. It isincreasingly necessary to make a distinction between twogroups of developing countries - those that are off to agood start and exporting more and more processed products(even if, in certain cases, their financial situation vis-avis the outside world is still extremely precarious) andthose that now make up the group of least-developed countriesfor which commodities, and particularly agriculturalproducts, are almost the only source of export earnings.
-9-As the world Bank underlines in its 1983 report : "Developingcountries can no longer be caricatured as exporters ofprimary products and importers of manufactures.Some haveeven become significant exporters of capital goods,accounting in all for about 6 percent of the world's total.These changes should not obscure the fact that for manydeveloping countries - particularly the poorest - primaryproducts still dominate their exports.Many countries arestill highly dependent on one export commodity1 coffee stillrepresents almost 90 percent of Burundi's recorded exportsand more than 50 percent of Colombia's.Other examplesinclude cocoa in Ghana (70 percent), sugar in Mauritius (morethan 65 percent) and copper in Zambia (more than 70percent)."To say that, for these countries, and all the others incomparable situations, any drop in the world price of theseproducts is catastrophic, is self evident.If coffee pricesslump or there is a vast cocoa harvest in the world, thenBurundi and Ghana are in dire straits.There are someinsurances, such as the EEC's Stabex and the IMF'scompensatory financing facility, but they do not cover allthe risks.It is difficult, impossible even, to programmegrowth and economic development in conditions of this kind.And it is also difficult to find creditors willing to coversuch risks.One of the developing countries' main demands is to be ableto run their development as flexibly and as reliably aspossible.They failed to organize their demands for many years, butsuddenly asserted them after the oil crisis in 1973 and thesurge in raw material prices that followed.The North-South Dialogue was about to see the light of day.
-10-PART II COMMODITIES AT THE HEART OF THE NORTH-SOUTH DIALOGUE I.FROM WAR TO DIALOGUE- NORTH-SOUTH IS BORN A war was all it took The war between the Israelis and the Arabs in 1973 was togive rise to that astounding weapon, oil.For the first time in its history, the industrialized westwas going to lose its absolute control over the worldeconomy.The peaceful car-less Sundays of late 1973convinced the Europeans that nothing would ever be the sameagain. Account now had to be taken of the countries of theThird World, which burst upon the internationalpoliticalscene in the person of the oil producers.Toall these countries, which had never had any choice but tocomply with the interests of the western world, theoil-producers' act of daring was an example.In the space ofa few weeks, a group of countries, all of them from the Thirdworld, had managed to succeed where years of negotiations hadfailed.The developing countries were quick to realize thelink between oil, raw materials and development.Theyknocked at the door of the industrialized west harder thanthey had ever done before, asking for a settlement andgenerating a vast movement to reform the way the worldeconomy operated.
-II-After handling the most urgent issues, the industrializedcountries gradually awakened to the fact that their effortsover the previous 20 years had failed to have the anticipatedresults. This awakening, it is true, was partly broughtabout by a fear that the western economies' supply of rawmaterials was under threat. No group of raw materialsproducers in the Third world was in a position to repeat theoil-producers' coup, certainly. There is nothing to comparewith the world oil market. "Crude" is the strategic rawmaterial par exellence, export supplies are concentated inthe Third World and there is no short-term substitute Butthe industrialized nations could still not rule out thepossibility of anarchic action by other raw materialproducers who might be quick to capitalize on tension thatoccurred on a particular market by provisionally reducingdeliveries, for example, or announcing major price rises, asMorocco did for phosphates. Although raw material suppliesto the industrialized nations could not be totallycompromised, it was impossible to rule out certain setbacks.The surge in raw material prices in 1973/74 also served tostrengthen the industrialized nations' fears.For several months, the developed and the industrializedcountries talked but got nowhere. The extraordinary assemblyof the UN (April 1974) on raw materials and development wasthe scene of lively disputes. The declaration on the newinternational economic order was adopted in the most totalconfusion. Many industrialized countries, including the USA,Germany and Japan, voted against a text now considered to bethe economic creed of the developing countries.It is true thatdenunciation ofcountries. Thecalled for by athe declaration contained a vigorousthe privileges of the industrializednew international economic order was beinggroup of nations which felt that they had
-12-been over-exploited.The declaration made a number ofdemands on which the west was going to have reservations the right to nationalize and have permanent sovereignty overnatural resources, an automatic link between the developingcountries' export prices and their import prices, rawmaterial producers' associations, elimination of thedeveloping countries' long-standing trade deficit,limitation of competition from synthetic products, cheaperaccess to western technology and control over the activity ofthe multinationals.So in April 1974, the climate of relations between the richcoutries and the poor ones was not always good.And therewere other misunderstandings and other skirmishes -in Rome(November 1974) at the UN conference on food, in Dakar(February 1975) at the non-aligned ministers' meeting on rawmaterials, in Lima (March 1975) at the UNIDO conference onThird World industrialization and in Paris (April 1975),when the preparatory conference for the North-South Dialoguefailed.The international community gradually moved towardstotal deadlock.Yet, although the seeds of confrontation didnot completely disappear, reason won through in the end.Reason first came from the EEC.The conclusion ofnegotiations between the Nine and 46 countries of Africa,the Caribbean and the Pacific, some of the poorest in theworld, was hailed as a success for development cooperationpolicy in both Europe and the Third World.The LomeConvention, signed in February 1975, was a milestone inNorth-South relations.Its regional solutions (they werenegotiated, not imposed) were of universal value - take themultilateralization of financial aid, the establishment ofindustrial cooperation and the guaranteed outlets for sugarproducers, not to mention Stabex, the original exportearnings stabilization system.But Lome was not enough todefreeze relations between the industrialized and the poorcountries.Much in fact depended on what attitude the
-13-Americans, who had not so far been keen on dialogue, adopted.Washington diplomacy finally changed direction and, in thespace of a fortnight, Henry Kissinger, theAmericanSecretary of State, made two key speeches - one in KansasCity on 13 May 1975 and one to the OECD Council in Paris on28 May.Certainly, Mr Kissinger made no major concessions tothe Third World demands. As he saw it, the current economicsystem, which had enabled record growth to be achieved, hadto be preserved.Freedom (of trade, capital transfer,technology and so on) was the basis of the prosperity of theinnustrialized world and the developing countries could nothope to prosper without it The USA, without which "no solution was possible", nevertheless agreed to certain changes in the system to facilitategrowth in the Third World.In another speechondevelopment, this time to the extraordinary assembly of theUN in September 1975, Mr Kissinger indeed said exactly whathe thought.The anticipated changes should make it possibleto meet three of the challenges facing the world economy those of energy, raw materials, and food The Community as mediatorThe change in the American attitude fell far short of theThird World's expectations, at least when it came to theterms of the new international economic order, but it didopen the way for a dialogue.It is true that the ThirdWorld's economic and financial situation had deterioratedconsiderably since the oil crisis, as they were more affectedthan the industrialized countries by the rising cost ofcrude.They went through a serious food crisis.Theybenefited less from the raw material price surge of 1973/75than did the rich countries.Whether from necessity orreason, it was time for dialogue.This is why the UNextraordinary assembly in New York on 1-15 September 1975
-14-was a relative success.The compromise resolution adopted inNew York was a proof that both camps wanted to find mutuallyacceptable solutions.The Community, which probably keptmore in the background than the USA at the plenary session,made a decisive contribution to drafting the compromise inthe sidelines.The Nine, which had coordinated theirposition, on the basis of a communication from the EuropeanCommission, before the assembly, maintained unity throughout,representing a force of conciliation and mediation betweenthe USA and the Third world. II.HOPES AT NAIROBI - THE INTEGRATED PROGRAMME FORCOMMODITIES The UN resolution of September 1975 was thought to open theway for a real dialogue on a reform of international economicrelations.The compromize recognized all the aspirations ofthe Third World countries - without, however, acceptingimplementation of the techniques they suggested in certainfields.But all the participants had accepted the text and this wasthe essential thing.This dialogue, which many people nowwrite "dialogue" to show that it has often been a battle ofstrength, was held in two main fields.
-15-First of all, an attempt was made to find a calmer frameworkthan the UN bodies and one that would in any case be moreconducive to reflexion, discussion and practicaldecision-making.Thus the Conference on InternationalEconomic Cooperation (CIEC), to be the symbol of theNorth-South Dialogue, was organized in Paris in December1975.This forum, it was felt, would be a more suitable one forindustrialized and developing countries to discuss the newinternational economic order.Many industrial countriesfound UNCTAD debates too political to lead to practical,viable solutions.This in particular, was the position ofthe USA.The developing countries, for their part, refused to hold thedialogue in the GATT, a body which they felt was almostexclusively for the USA, the EEC and Japan and which had madepossible the free trade that they were denouncing.As well as this relative neutrality, the CIEC should havegained in efficiency from the restricted number andrepresentativity of its 27 participants.Four committees -on energy, raw materials, development and financial andmonetary questions - were set up.The CIEC was a failure.We shall see some of the reasonsfor this later, but things could probably not have beenotherwise and, since the fruitless Cancun conference ofsummer 1981, the CIEC has lain dormant.But is the North-South Dialogue really dead?Certainly not,because we still have the traditional framework fordiscussion, UNCTAD.
-16-The first practical result - the Integrated Programme forCommoditiesOf the three UNCTAD conferences held since 1975, it was theNairobi one (May 1976) that went furthest towards realizingthe hopes the developing countries had placed in the newinternational economic order.Participants at the Nairobi conference were in fact to adopt,via resolution 93 (IV), the Integrated Programme for Commodities previously presented by the UNCTAD Secretariat inFebruary 1975.The Integrated Programme covers 18 commodities - bananas,bauxite, tropical wood, cocoa, coffee, natural rubber, cottonand cotton yarn, copper, tin, hard fibres and their products,vegetable oil (including olive oil) and oilseeds, jute andjute products, manganese, iron ore, phosphates, sugar, teaand meat - all exports of considerable interest to thedeveloping countries.The aims are to:keep commodity prices at levels which, in real terms, areremunerative and fair to the producers and fair to theconsumersl- attenuate any excessive fluctuation of commodity prices andstabilize supplies, in the interests of both the producersand the consumersl- stabilize and increase the purchasing power of eachdeveloping country's export earningsl- boost the developing countries' exports of primary andprocessed products (access to markets in the developedcountries) and make natural products more competitive inrelation to synthetic substitutes;
-17-- increase the processing of primary products in thedeveloping countries;- increase developing country involvement in the transport,marketing and distribution of their commodity exports;- encourage R & D of problems related to natural products;- improve market structures for commodities which areimportant exports for the developing countries.The Integrated Programe proposes achieving these aims in thecommodity sector by a series of international measures thatcan be applied singly or together, bearing in mind the"characteristics and problems of each product and the specialneeds of the developing countries". These involve :- setting up international buffer stocks;- harmonizing storage policies and setting up coordinatednational stocks;- instituting price arrangements, particularly negotiatedprice scales that are discussed and adjusted periodically;- adopting international supply regulation measures,including export quotas and production policies and, wherenecessary, long-term multilateral supply and purchasecommitments;- improving procedures for information and consultation onthe market situation;- improving and extending compensatory financing facilities;- improving market access for the developing countries'primary and processed products via multilateral commercial
-18-measures, the extension of the generalized system ofpreferences and trade promotion measures;-taking international measures to ensure the rapiddevelopment of raw material processing in the developingcountries;-taking international measures to increase the developingcountries' involvement in the transport, marketing anddistribution of their commodities;-taking measures to encourage R & D of commodity-relatedproblems;-taking measures to encourage R & D of problems related toany natural products subject to competition fromsynthetics;- examining stabilization measures for products that cannotbe stored.Resolution 93(IV) also provided for a negotiating conferenceon a common fund to finance the various measures of theIntegrated Programme and preparatory meetings forinternational negotiations on the relevant commodities to becalled.Negotiating conferences on commodities were alsoscheduled to take place once these meetings were completed.
-19-The European Community signs the Common FundOne of the essential aims of the Integrated Programme forCommodities is to stabilize the markets. In most cases,this should involve concluding international productagreements, many of which are mainly concerned with settingup buffer stocks. This brings us to the problem of financingthese stocks - and this is where the Common Fund comes in.It took two years of negotiation to reach the March 1979agreement on the basic elements of the Common Fund. It tookmore than a year for negotiators to settle certain technicaland statutory problems and reach their final agreement and,on 28 June 1980, 101 countries (there were 109 of them by1984) initialled the act setting up the Common Fund.Two "windows", or accounts of roughly the same size, are tobe opened.The first is tobuffer stocks (and of nationaltional level bycontribute to the financing of internationalthe arrangements for this to be fixed later)stocks that would be coordinated at internavirtue of international commodity agreements.The second is to finance measures other than stock constitution - R&D, productivity increases and trade promotion.The financial resources of the Fund are to come from directcontributions from governments, resources accruing from theassociation of international commodity agreements with theactivities of the Fund, loans, voluntary contributions andthe net earnings of the Fund itself.Direct government contributions to the first window are toamount to 400 million, of which 150 million to bedeposited in cash, 150 million made available and 100million callable. Part of the contributions are to be paidto the second window so that this has at least 70 million.
-WThe aim for the second window is to reach a total of 350million and the difference between this amount and the directcontribution of 70 million (i.e. 280 million) is to comefrom voluntary contributions from member countries of theFund.The international product agreements which will be associatedwith the Fund are to deposit in it 33.3 % of their maximumfinancial requirements to obtain credit for the other twothirds.The basic idea behind the Common Fund is that all thecommodity markets are not depressed at the same time and thatprices that go up will compensate for others going down. So,if the Common Fund is to function properly, the maximumnumber of international agreements must be concluded inassociation with it and there must be real risk-sharing.Some people, remembering that, in 1973-74, practically all rawmaterial prices reached record levels about the same time, andafterwards slumped more or less together, have their doubtsabout the truth of thi
- COMMODITIES THE KEY TO THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT 4 I. World trade in commodities 4 II. The vital importance of commodities to the Third 7 World III. Not all in the same boat 8 . its conclusions are still valid. The 66 products on the UN lists can be divided into three categories :
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