Basic Principles - Marengine
Basic Principlesof Ship Propulsion
ContentsIntroduction. 5Scope of this Paper. 5Chapter 1. 6Ship Definitions and Hull Resistance. 6Ship types. 6A ship’s load lines. 6Indication of a ship’s size. 7Description of hull forms. 7A ship’s resistance. 9Admiralty coefficient. 13Chapter 2. 14Propeller Propulsion. 14Propeller types. 14Flow conditions around the propeller. 15Efficiencies. 16Propeller thrust T and torque QB reacting on main engine. 17Propeller dimensions and coefficients. 18Manufacturing accuracy of the propeller. 19Slip ratio and propeller law. 20Heavy running of a propeller. 22Manoeuvring speed and propeller rotation. 26Chapter 3. 27Engine Layout and Load Diagrams. 27Power functions and logarithmic scales. 27Propulsion and engine running points. 27Engine layout diagram. 29Standard engine load diagram. 29Extended engine load diagram. 31Use of layout and load diagrams – examples with FP-propeller. 32Use of layout and load diagrams – example with CP-propeller. 35Influence on engine running of different types of ship resistance –plant with FP-propeller. 36Influence of ship resistance on combinator curves –plant with CP-propeller. 38Constant ship speed line for increased propeller diameter. 38Estimations of engine/propeller speed at SMCR for different singlescrew FP-propeller diameters and number of propeller blades. 40Closing Remarks. 42References. 42MAN B&W DieselBasic Principles of Ship Propulsion3
Basic Principles of Ship PropulsionIntroductionScope of this Paperscribed for free sailing in calm weather,For the purpose of this paper, the termThis paper is divided into three chap-and followed up by the relative heavy/“ship” is used to denote a vehicle em-ters which, in principle, may be con-light running conditions which applyployed to transport goods and personssidered as three separate papers butwhen the ship is sailing and subject tofrom one point to another over water.which also, with advantage, may bedifferent types of extra resistance, likeShip propulsion normally occurs withread in close connection to each other.fouling, heavy sea against, etc.the help of a propeller, which is the termTherefore, some important informationmost widely used in English, althoughmentioned in one chapter may well ap-Chapter 3 elucidates the importancethe word “screw” is sometimes seen,pear in another chapter, too.of choosing the correct specified MCRinter alia in combinations such as a“twin-screw” propulsion plant.point of the main engine, and therebyChapter 1 describes the most elemen-the engine’s load diagram in consid-tary terms used to define ship sizeseration to the propeller’s design point.Today, the primary source of propel-and hull forms such as, for example,The construction of the relevant loadler power is the diesel engine, and thethe ship’s displacement, deadweight,diagram lines is described in detail bypower requirement and rate of revolu-design draught, length between per-means of several examples. Fig. 25tion very much depend on the ship’s hullpendiculars,etc.shows, for a ship with fixed pitch pro-form and the propeller design. There-Other ship terms described include thepeller, by means of a load diagram, thefore, in order to arrive at a solution thateffective towing resistance, consistingimportant influence of different types ofis as optimal as possible, some generalof frictional, residual and air resistance,ship resistance on the engine’s continu-knowledge is essential as to the princi-and the influence of these resistancesous service rating.pal ship and diesel engine parametersin service.blockcoefficient,that influence the propulsion system.Some useful thumb rules for increasedChapter 2 deals with ship propulsionpropeller diameters and number of pro-This paper will, in particular, attempt toand the flow conditions around thepeller blades are mentioned at the endexplain some of the most elementarypropeller(s). In this connection, theof Chapter 3.terms used regarding ship types, ship’swake fraction coefficient and thrust de-dimensions and hull forms and clarifyduction coefficient, etc. are mentioned.some of the parameters pertaining tohull resistance, propeller conditions andThe total power needed for the propel-the diesel engine’s load diagram.ler is found based on the above effective towing resistance and various pro-On the other hand, it is considered be-peller and hull dependent efficienciesyond the scope of this publication towhich are also described. A summarygive an explanation of how propulsionof the propulsion theory is shown in Fig.calculations as such are carried out, as6.the calculation procedure is extremelycomplex. The reader is referred to theThe operating conditions of a propel-specialised literature on this subject, forler according to the propeller law validexample as stated in “References”.for a propeller with fixed pitch are de-MAN B&W DieselBasic Principles of Ship Propulsion5
Chapter 1Ship Definitions and Hull ResistanceExamples of ship typesShip typesCategoryClassTypeTankerOil tankerCrude (oil) CarrierVery Large Crude CarrierUltra Large Crude CarrierProduct TankerCCVLCCULCCtioned in Table 1.Gas tankerChemical tankerLiquefied Natural Gas carrierLiquefied Petroleum Gas carrierLNGLPGThe three largest categories of shipsOBOOil/Bulk/Ore carierOBOContainer CarrierRoll On - Roll offRo-RoDepending on the nature of their cargo,and sometimes also the way the cargois loaded/unloaded, ships can be divided into different categories, classesand types, some of which are men-are container ships, bulk carriers (forBulk carrierBulk carrierbulk goods such as grain, coal, ores,Container shipContainer shipGeneral cargo shipGeneral cargoCoasterReeferReeferPassenger shipFerryCruise vesseletc.) and tankers, which again can bedivided into more precisely definedclasses and types. Thus, tankers canbe divided into oil tankers, gas tankers and chemical tankers, but there arealso combinations, e.g. oil/chemicaltankers.Refrigerated cargo vesselTable 1Table 1 provides only a rough outline.tions and summer and winter sailing.The winter freeboard draught is lessIn reality there are many other combi-According to the international freeboardthan that valid for summer because ofnations, such as “Multipurpose bulkrules, the summer freeboard draughtthe risk of bad weather whereas, on thecontainer carriers”, to mention just onefor seawater is equal to the “Scantlingother hand, the freeboard draught forexample.draught”, which is the term applied totropical seas is somewhat higher thanthe ship’s draught when dimensioningthe summer freeboard draught.A ship’s load linesthe hull.Painted halfway along the ship’s sideis the “Plimsoll Mark”, see Fig. 1. Thelines and letters of the Plimsoll Mark,which conform to the freeboard ruleslaid down by the IMO (InternationalDMaritime Organisation) and local authorities, indicate the depth to whichthe vessel may be safely loaded (theFreeboard deckdepth varies according to the seasonD: Freeboard draughtand the salinity of the water, i.e. to thedifference in water density and the corresponding difference in buoyancy).TFDLFThere are, e.g. load lines for sailing infreshwater and seawater, respectively,with further divisions for tropical condi-Danish load markFreshwaterFig. 1: Load lines – freeboard draught6Basic Principles of Ship PropulsionTSWWNATropicalSummerWinterWinter - the North AtlanticSeawater
Indication of a ship’s size(summer freeboard/scantling draught)occurring draught between the fully-Displacement and deadweightand light weight.loaded and the ballast draught is used.at an arbitrary water line, its displace-A ship’s displacement can also be ex-Ship’s lengths LOA, LWL, and LPPment is equal to the relevant mass ofpressed as the volume of displacedThe overall length of the ship LOA is nor-water displaced by the ship. Displace-water , i.e. in m3.mally of no consequence when calcu-When a ship in loaded condition floatsment is thus equal to the total weight,lating the hull’s water resistance. Theall told, of the relevant loaded ship, nor-Gross register tonsfactors used are the length of the wa-mally in seawater with a mass densityWithout going into detail, it should beterline LWL and the so-called length be-of 1.025 t/m3.mentioned that there are also suchtween perpendiculars LPP. The dimen-measurements as Gross Register Tonssions referred to are shown in Fig. 2.Displacement comprises the ship’s(GRT), and Net Register Tons (NRT)light weight and its deadweight, wherewhere 1 register ton 100 English cu-The length between perpendiculars isthe deadweight is equal to the ship’sbic feet, or 2.83 m3.the length between the foremost per-loaded capacity, including bunkers andpendicular, i.e. usually a vertical lineother supplies necessary for the ship’sThese measurements express the sizethrough the stem’s intersection withpropulsion. The deadweight at any timeof the internal volume of the ship in ac-the waterline, and the aftmost perpen-thus represents the difference betweencordance with the given rules for suchdicular which, normally, coincides withthe actual displacement and the ship’smeasurements, and are extensivelythe rudder axis. Generally, this length islight weight, all given in tons:used for calculating harbour and canalslightly less than the waterline length,dues/charges.and is often expressed as:Description of hull formsLPP 0.97 x LWLdeadweight displacement – light weight.Incidentally, the word “ton” does notIt is evident that the part of the shipalways express the same amount ofwhich is of significance for its propul-Draught Dweight. Besides the metric ton (1,000sion is the part of the ship’s hull whichThe ship’s draught D (often T is usedkg), there is the English ton (1,016 kg),is under the water line. The dimensionsin literature) is defined as the verti-which is also called the “long ton”. Abelow describing the hull form refer tocal distance from the waterline to that“short ton” is approx. 907 kg.the design draught, which is less than,point of the hull which is deepest in theor equal to, the scantling draught. Thewater, see Figs. 2 and 3. The foremostThe light weight of a ship is not nor-choice of the design draught dependsdraught DF and aftmost draught DA aremally used to indicate the size of a ship,on the degree of load, i.e. whether, innormally the same when the ship is inwhereas the deadweight tonnage (dwt),service, the ship will be lightly or heavilythe loaded condition.based on the ship’s loading capacity,loaded. Generally, the most frequentlyBreadth on waterline BWLincluding fuel and lube oils, etc. for operation of the ship, measured in tons atExamples of relationship betweenAnother important factor is the hull’sscantling draught, often is.displacement, deadweight tonnagelargest breadth on the waterline BWL,and light weightSometimes, the deadweight tonnagemay also refer to the design draughtof the ship but, if so, this will be mentioned. Table 2 indicates the rule-ofthumb relationship between the ship’sdisplacement,deadweightMAN B&W Dieseltonnagesee Figs. 2 and 3.Ship typedwt/lightweight ratioDispl./dwtratioTanker andBulk carrier61.17Containership2.5-3.01.33-1.4Table 2Block coefficient CBVarious form coefficients are used toexpress the shape of the hull. The mostimportant of these coefficients is theblock coefficient CB, which is definedas the ratio between the displacementBasic Principles of Ship Propulsion7
Examples of block coefficients referred to design draught and LPPShip typeAMBlockcoefficientCB, PPDLighterBWLDFDAApproximate shipspeed Vin knots0.905 – 10Bulk carrier0.80 – 0.8512 – 16Tanker0.80 – 0.8512 – 17General cargo0.55 – 0.7513 – 22Container ship0.50 – 0.7014 – 26Ferry boat0.50 – 0.7015 – 26Table 3LPPLWLLOALength between perpendiculars:Length on waterline:Length overall:Breadth on waterlineDraught:Midship section area:LPPLWLLOABWLD ½ (DF DA)AmFig. 2: Hull dimensionsvolume and the volume of a box withdimensions LWL x BWL x D, see Fig. 3, i.e.:DAMWaterline plane CB,WL L WL х BWL х DAWLIn the case cited above, the block coef-L PPL WLficient refers to the length on waterlineLWL. However, shipbuilders often useblock coefficient CB,PP based on theBWLlength between perpendiculars, LPP, inwhich case the block coefficient will,as a rule, be slightly larger because, aspreviously mentioned, LPP is normallyslightly less than LWL. CB,PP LPP х BWL х DVolume of displacement:Waterline area: A WLBlock coefficient , L WL based: C B, WL Midship section coefficient: CMLongitudinal prismatic coefficient: CPWaterplane area coefficient: C WL Fig. 3: Hull coefficients of a ship8Basic Principles of Ship PropulsionL WL x B WL x DAM B WL x D AM x L WLA WLL WL x B WL
A small block coefficient means lessGenerally, the water plane area coef-Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy LCBresistance and, consequently, the pos-ficient is some 0.10 higher than theThe Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancysibility of attaining higher ship speeds.block coefficient, i.e.:(LCB) expresses the position of thecentre of buoyancy and is defined asTable 3 shows some examples of blockCWL CB 0.10.coefficient sizes referred to the designthe distance between the centre ofbuoyancy and the mid-point betweendraught, and the pertaining serviceThis difference will be slightly largerthe ship’s foremost and aftmost per-speeds, on different types of ships. Iton fast vessels with small block coeffi-pendiculars. The distance is normallyshows that large block coefficients cor-cients where the stern is also partly im-stated as a percentage of the lengthrespond to low ship speeds and vicemersed in the water and thus becomesbetween the perpendiculars, and isversa. When referring to the scantlingpart of the ”water plane” area.positive if the centre of buoyancy is lo-draught, the block coefficient will becated to the fore of the mid-point beMidship section coefficient CMtween the perpendiculars, and negativeA further description of the hull form isif located to the aft of the mid-point. ForVariation of block coefficient for a given shipprovided by the midship section coef-a ship designed for high speeds, e.g.For a given ship, the block coefficientficient CM, which expresses the ratiocontainer ships, the LCB will, normally,will change with changed draught.between the immersed midship sectionbe negative, whereas for slow-speedarea AM (midway between the foremostships, such as tankers and bulk carri-The method given by Riddlesworthand the aftmost perpendiculars) anders, it will normally be positive. The LCBis used to assess the variation of thethe product of the ship’s breadth BWLis generally between -3% and 3%.block coefficient CB with a change inand draught D, see Fig. 3, i.e.:slightly increased, as described below.draught D. According to this method,when the reference block coefficientCBdes for example is used for the designAMCM BWL х DFineness ratio CLDThe length/displacement ratio or fineness ratio, CLD, is defined as the ratiodraught Ddes, the block coefficient CBFor bulkers and tankers, this coeffi-between the ship’s waterline length LWL,at any other draught D can be approxi-cient is in the order of 0.98-0.99, andand the length of a cube with a volumemated as follows:for container ships in the order of 0.97-equal to the displacement volume, i.e.:Ddes 1/3CB 1 – (1 – CBdes ) x ()D0.98.LWLCLD 3 Longitudinal prismatic coefficient CPThe corresponding change in displace-The longitudinal prismatic coefficient CPA ship’s resistancement is then found as follows:expresses the ratio between displace-To move a ship, it is first necessaryment volume and the product of theto overcome resistance, i.e. the forcemidship frame section area AM and theworking against its propulsion. Thelength of the waterline LWL, see also Fig.calculation of this resistance R plays3, i.e.:a significant role in the selection of theCBD x x desCBdesDdesWater plane area coefficient CWLThe water plane area coefficient CWLexpresses the ratio between the vessel’s waterline area AWL and the prod- CB,WLCp AM х LWL CM х BWL х D х LWL CMcorrect propeller and in the subsequentchoice of main engine.uct of the length LWL and the breadthAs can be seen, CP is not an independ-GeneralBWL of the ship on the waterline, seeent form coefficient, but is entirely de-A ship’s resistance is particularly in-Fig. 3, i.e.:pendent on the block coefficient CB,WLfluenced by its speed, displacement,and the midship section coefficient CM.and hull form. The total resistance RT,AWLCWL LWL х BWLconsists of many source-resistances RMAN B&W DieselBasic Principles of Ship Propulsion9
which can be divided into three mainOn the basis of many experimental tankoften some 70-90% of the ship’s totalgroups, viz.:tests, and with the help of pertaining di-resistance for low-speed ships (bulkmensionless hull parameters, some ofcarriers and tankers), and sometimes1) Frictional resistancewhich have already been discussed,less than 40% for high-speed ships2) Residual resistancemethods have been established for(cruise liners and passenger ships), Ref.3) Air resistancecalculating all the necessary resistance[1]. The frictional resistance is found ascoefficients C and, thus, the pertainingfollows:The influence of frictional and residualsource-resistances R. In practice, theresistances depends on how much ofcalculation of a particular ship’s resist-the hull is below the waterline, while theance can be verified by testing a modelinfluence of air resistance depends onof the relevant ship in a towing tank.how much of the ship is above the wa-RF CF KResidual resistance RRResidual resistance RR comprises waveterline. In view of this, air resistance willFrictional resistance RFhave a certain effect on container shipsThe frictional resistance RF of the hullresistance refers to the energy losswhich carry a large number of contain-depends on the size of the hull’s wettedcaused by waves created by the vesselers on the deck.area AS, and on the specific frictionalduring its propulsion through the water,resistance and eddy resistance. Waveresistance coefficient CF. The frictionwhile eddy resistance refers to the lossWater with a speed of V and a densityincreases with fouling of the hull, i.e. bycaused by flow separation which cre-of ρ has a dynamic pressure of:the growth of, i.a. algae, sea grass andates eddies, particularly at the aft endbarnacles.of the ship.An attempt to avoid fouling is madeWave resistance at low speeds is pro-Thus, if water is being completelyby the use of anti-fouling hull paints toportional to the square of the speed,stopped by a body, the water will reactprevent the hull from becoming “long-but increases much faster at higheron the surface of the body with the dy-haired”, i.e. these paints reduce thespeeds. In principle, this means thatnamic pressure, resulting in a dynamicpossibility of the hull becoming fouleda speed barrier is imposed, so that aforce on the body.by living organisms. The paints contain-further increase of the ship’s propulsioning TBT (tributyl tin) as their principalpower will not result in a higher speedThis relationship is used as a basisbiocide, which is very toxic, have domi-as all the power will be converted intowhen calculating or measuring thenated the market for decades, but thewave energy. The residual resistancesource-resistances R of a ship’s hull,IMO ban of TBT for new applicationsnormally represents 8-25% of the totalby means of dimensionless resistancefrom 1 January, 2003, and a full banresistance for low-speed ships, and upcoefficients C. Thus, C is related to thefrom 1 January, 2008, may involve theto 40-60% for high-speed ships, Ref.reference force K, defined as the forceuse of new (and maybe not as effective)[1].which the dynamic pressure of wateralternatives, probably copper-basedwith the ship’s speed V exerts on a sur-anti-fouling paints.2½ ρ V (Bernoulli’s law)face which is equal to the hull’s wettedIncidentally, shallow waters can alsohave great influence on the residual re-area AS. The rudder’s surface is also in-When the ship is propelled through thesistance, as the displaced water undercluded in the wetted area. The generalwater, the frictional resistance increas-the ship will have greater difficulty indata for resistance calculations is thus:es at a rate that is virtually equal to themoving aftwards.square of the vessel’s speed.Reference force: K ½ ρ V 2 ASand source resistances: R C K10 Basic Principles of Ship PropulsionIn general, the shallow water will haveFrictional resistance represents a con-no influence when the seawater depthsiderable part of the ship’s resistance,is more than 10 times the ship draught.
The procedure for calculating the spe-The power delivered to the propeller,The right column is valid for low-speedcific residual resistance coefficient CR isPD, in order to move the ship at speedships like bulk carriers and tankers, anddescribed in specialised literature, Ref.V is, however, somewhat larger. This isthe left column is valid for very high-[2], and the residual resistance is founddue, in particular, to the flow conditionsspeed ships like cruise liners and fer-as follows:around the propeller and the propellerries. Container ships may be placed inefficiency itself, the influences of whichbetween the two columns.RR CR Kare discussed in the next chapter whichdeals with Propeller Propulsion.The main reason for the difference be-Air resistance RAtween the two columns is, as earlierIn calm weather, air resistance is, inTotal ship resistance in generalmentioned, the wave resistance. Thus,principle, proportional to the squareWhen dividing the residual resistancein general all the resistances are pro-of the ship’s speed, and proportionalinto wave and eddy resistance, as ear-portional to the square of the speed,to the cross-sectional area of the shiplier described, the distribution of the totalbut for higher speeds the wave resist-above the waterline. Air resistance nor-ship towing resistance RT could also, asance increases much faster, involving amally represents about 2% of the totala guideline, be stated as shown in Fig. 4.higher part of the total resistance.resistance.For container ships in head wind, theair resistance can be as much as 10%.Type of resistanceThe air resistance can, similar to the% of RTHigh Lowspeed speedship shipforegoing resistances, be expressed asRA CA K, but is sometimes basedon 90% of the dynamic pressure of airRFRWRERAwith a speed of V, i.e.:RA 0.90 ½ ρair V 2 Aair Friction Wave Eddy AirRAwhere ρair is the density of the air, andAair is the cross-sectional area of theVvessel above the water, Ref. [1].Towing resistance RT and effective (towing)power PEShip speed VThe ship’s total towing resistance RT isRWthus found as:RT RF RR RAThe corresponding effective (towing)power, PE, necessary to move the shipthrough the water, i.e. to tow the ship atREVRFthe speed V, is then:PE V RTFig. 4: Total ship towing resistance RT RF RW RE RAMAN B&W DieselBasic Principles of Ship Propulsion 11
This tendency is also shown in Fig. 5 forIncrease of ship resistance in service,Experience, Ref. [4], shows that hulla 600 teu container ship, originally de-Ref. [3], page 244fouling with barnacles and tube wormssigned for the ship speed of 15 knots.During the operation of the ship, themay cause an increase in drag (ship re-Without any change to the hull design,paint film on the hull will break down.sistance) of up to 40%, with a drasticthe ship speed for a sister ship was re-Erosion will start, and marine plants andreduction of the ship speed as the con-quested to be increased to about 17.6barnacles, etc. will grow on the surfacesequence.knots. However, this would lead to aof the hull. Bad weather, perhaps inrelatively high wave resistance, requir-connection with an inappropriate dis-Furthermore, in general, Ref. [4], foring a doubling of the necessary propul-tribution of the cargo, can be a reasonevery 25 μm (25/1000 mm) increase ofsion power.for buckled bottom plates. The hull hasthe average hull roughness, the resultbeen fouled and will no longer have awill be a power increase of 2-3%, or aA further increase of the propulsion“technically smooth” surface, whichship speed reduction of about 1%.power may only result in a minor shipmeans that the frictional resistance willspeed increase, as most of the ex-be greater. It must also be consideredResistance will also increase becausetra power will be converted into wavethat the propeller surface can becomeof sea, wind and current, as shownenergy, i.e. a ship speed barrier validrough and fouled. The total resistance,in Table 4 for different main routes offor the given hull design is imposed bycaused by fouling, may increase by 25-ships. The resistance when navigatingwhat we could call a “wave wall”, see50% throughout the lifetime of a ship.in head-on sea could, in general, in-Fig. 5. A modification of the hull lines,crease by as much as 50-100% of thesuiting the higher ship speed, is nec-total ship resistance in calm weather.essary.Estimates of average increase inresistance for ships navigating themain routes:kW Propulsion power8,000“Wave wall”North Atlantic route,navigation westward25-35%North Atlantic route,6,000New service pointnavigation eastward20-25%Europe-Australia20-25%Europe-East Asia20-25%The Pacific routes20-30%Table 4: Main routes of ships4,000Normal service pointOn the North Atlantic routes, the firstpercentage corresponds to summer2,000navigation and the second percentageto winter navigation.0101520 knotsShip speedPower and speed relationship for a 600 TEU container shipHowever, analysis of trading conditionsfor a typical 140,000 dwt bulk carriershows that on some routes, especiallyJapan-Canada when loaded, the increased resistance (sea margin) canFig. 5: The “wave wall” ship speed barrier12 Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion
reach extreme values up to 220%, withwhen for example, as basis, referring toan average of about 100%.the design draught Ddes.Unfortunately, no data have been pub-For equal propulsion power P Pdeslished on increased resistance as awe get the ship speedfunction of type and size of vessel. Thelarger the ship, the less the relative increase of resistance due to the sea. On des )V Vdes х ( 2/9the other hand, the frictional resistanceFor equal ship speed V Vdesof the large, full-bodied ships will verywe get the propulsion powereasily be changed in the course of timebecause of fouling. )P Pdes х ( desIn practice, the increase of resistanceNormally, the draught ratio D/Ddescaused by heavy weather depends onmay be given instead of the displace-the current, the wind, as well as thement ratio, but the correlation betweenwave size, where the latter factor maydraught and displacement may behave great influence. Thus, if the wavefound by means of the block coefficientsize is relatively high, the ship speed willrelationship described previously un-be somewhat reduced even when sail-der “Variation of block coefficient for aing in fair seas.given ship”2/3In principle, the increased resistance causedby heavy weather could be related to:a) wind and current against, andb) heavy waves,but in practice it will be difficult to distinguish between these factors.Admiralty coefficientThe Admiralty coefficient A is a constantvalid for a given ship and is useful whensimple ship estimations are needed.The Admiralty coefficient A is constantfor a given hull and gives the approximate relationships between the neededpropulsion power P, ship speed V anddisplacement . Thus, the constant Ais defined as
Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion 7 Indication of a ship's size Displacement and deadweight When a ship in loaded condition floats at an arbitrary water line, its displace-ment is equal to the relevant mass of water displaced by the ship. Displace-ment is thus equal to the total weight, all told, of the relevant loaded ship, nor -
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