VINYL CHLORIDE - California
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENTPART BVINYL CHLORIDEOCTOBER 1990State of CaliforniaAir Resources BoardStationary Source DivisionI
HEALTH E F F E C T S O F AIRBORNE V I N Y L CHLORIDECALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT O F HEALTH S E R V I C E SO c t o b e r 1990
Prepared by: California Department of Health ServicesStanley V. Dawson, Sc.D., Staff ToxicologistGeorge V. Alexeeff, Ph.D.Michael J. Lipsett, M.D.Douglas N. Cox, Ph.D. (California Public Health Foundation)Based in part on work submittted by:Carla C. Christensen and C. Tucker Helmes,Biological and Environmental Chemistry Department,SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Avenue,Menlo Park, California 94025,Under Contract 85-86676 (045A)and by:Deborah Grady, M.D., M.P.H.School of Medicine,University of California, San Francisco,andAllan Smith, M.D., Ph.D. University of California, Berkeley
TABLE OF CONTENTS1.0EXECUTIVE S W M R Y1.1 Vinyl Chloride Highlights2.0METABOLISM AND PHARMACOKINETICS2.1Summary2.2Absorvtion. Distribution. and Excretion2.33.04.0.5.02.2.1Inhalation Administration2.2.2Intragastric, Intraperitoneal,Intravenous, Dermal and OralAdministrationMetabolismACUTE TOXICITY3.1Summary3.2Animal Studies3.3Human DataSUBCHRONIC AND CHRONIC TOXICITY4.1Human4.2AnimalsDEVELOPMENTAL AND REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS5.1Summary5.2Teratoaenic Effects in Animals5.2.15.3Inhalation StudiesRe roductive Effects in Humans
6.0GENOTOXICITY6.26.3Muta enicitv6.2.1Bacterial Assays6.2.2Eukaryotic Systems6.2.3Cultured Mammalian Cell Assays6.2.4Jn Vivo Mutagenicity AssaysChromosomal Damare6.3.1Dominant Lethal Tests6.3.2Chromosome Aberration/Sister ChromatidExchange Studies6.3.2.1 Experimental Studies6.3.2.2 Human Observations7.06.3.3Micronucleus Tests6.3.4DNA Damage/Unscheduled DNA Synthesis(UDS) Tests6.4Mammalian Cell Transformation6.5Relationshiv to CarcinoeenesisCARCINOGENICITY7.1Animal Studies7.1.1Summary7.1.2Intraperitoneal, Subcutaneous, andTransplacental Administration7.1.3Oral Administration7.1.3.1Studies by Maltoni andAssociates7.1.3.2Studies by Feron andAssociates7.1.3.3Studies by Ti1 andAssociates
7.1.47.2Inhalation Administration7.1.4.1StudiesinRats7.1.4.2Studies in Mice7.1.4.3Studies on the PotentialEffects of Age at Time ofExposure7.1.4.4Studies by Maltoni andAssociatesHuman Studies on the Carcinoeenic Effects ofVinvl Chloride7.2.1Introduction7.2.2General Design of Epidemiologic Studies7.2.3Difficulties in Interpretingthe Epidemiologic Evidence7.2.4Mortality Studies7.2.5Cancer Risks Associated with Exposure toVinyl Chloride7.2.5.1Liver Cancer7.2.5.2Other Cancers7.2.5.2.1 Brain Cancer7.2.5.2.2 Lung Cancer7.2.5.2.3 Lymphoma7.3.5.38.0Recent Review of HumanStudies7.2.6Exposure Information7.2.7ConclusionsQUANTITATIVE CARCINOGENIC RISK ASSESSMENT8.1Introduction8.2The Metabolic Model8.3Analysis of Human Data from Waxweiler et a17-3
8.49.0Models of Carcinogenesis Fitted toRodent Data8.4.1Computational Methods8.4.2Model Results8.5Extrapolating rodent Risks to Humans8.6Risk Predictions for the RegulationCONCLUSIONS9.1Acute Toxicity9.2Subchronic and Chronic Toxicity9.3Pharmacokinetics9.4Re roductiveToxicity9.5Mutaeenicitv9.6Carcino enicityREFERENCESAPPENDIX A: Abstracts of Maltoni et al. (1984) BioassaysAPPENDIX B: Cancer Risk Estimates for Vinyl Chloride Based onHuman Data
LIST OF TABLESSubchronic and Chronic Toxicity of Vinyl ChlorideAdministered by Inhalation to Animals.Incidence of Liver Tumors and Neoplastic Nodules inWistar Rats Exposed Orally to Vinyl Chloride(Feron et al., 1981).Incidence of Lung Angiosarcomas, AbdominalMesotheliomas, and Mammary Tumors in Wistar RatsExposed Orally to Vinyl Chloride (Feron et al.,1981).Liver Tumor Incidence in Male and Female Wistar RatsExposed to Vinyl Chloride by Oral Administration for149 Weeks (Ti1 et al., 1983).Tumor Incidence Following Vinyl Chloride Exposure inFemale Rats, Hamsters and Mice From the Study ofDrew et al. (1983).Experimental Protocol for Inhalation Studies(Maltoni et al., 1984).Tumors Correlated to Inhalation Exposure to VinylChloride in Rats, Mice, and Hamsters in the BTExperiments.Lowest Concentration at Which a Significant (p 0.05)Excess of Tumors Was Reported by Maltoni andAssociates in Inhalation Studies at Specific Sitesin Sprague-Dawley Rats (Maltoni et al., 1984).Incidence of Liver Angiosarcomas ( U S ) in Male andFemale Sprague-Dawley Rats Exposed for 52 Weeks toVinyl Chloride (Maltoni et al., 1984).Incidence of Mammary Gland Carcinomas in Female SpragueDawley Rats and Swiss Mice Exposed by Inhalation toVinyl Chloride (Maltoni et al., 1984).Incidence of Pulmonary Adenomas, Mammary Carcinomas,and Liver Angiosarcomas in Male and Female Swiss MiceExposed to Vinyl Chloride by Inhalation (Experiment BT4)(Maltoni et al., 1984).
7-11A Summary of Epidemiologic Data for OccupationallyExposed Vinyl Chloride Workers.7-12A Summary of Tumor Incidences and StandardizedMortality Ratios (SMR) for Occupationally ExposedVinyl Chloride Workers.7-13A Summary of Epidemiologic Studies Which ExaminedPossible Correlations Between Occupational VinylChloride Exposure and Primary Cancers of the Liver.7-14A Summary of Epidemiologic Studies Which ExaminedPossible Correlations Between Occupational VinylChloride Exposure and Brain Cancer.7-15A Summary of Epidemiologic Studies Which ExaminedPossible Correlations Between Occupational VinylChloride Exposure and Lung Cancer.7-16A Summary of Epidemiologic Studies Which ExaminedPossible Correlations Between Occupational VinylChloride Exposure and Lymphoma.8-1Summary Description of Rodent ExperimentsConsidered in Risk Analyses8-2Risks of Carcinogenicity from Vinyl ChlorideExposure Estimated From Rodent Data8-3Rank Ordering of Estimates of Human Riskby CategoryB-1Cohort Characteristics of Selected VinylChloride StudiesB-2Standard Mortality Ratios (and 90% ConfidenceIntervals) for Selected Chloride StudiesB-3Historic Exposure Levels (ppm):B-4Effective Exposure for Waxweiler Et Al. (1976)B-5Historical Evol ti n of OccupationalExposure Limitsy, 88-6Vinyl Chloride Unit Risk Coefficients forWaxweiler Et A1 (1976)viiiVinyl Chloride
LIST OF FIGURES2-1Metabolism of Vinyl Chloride.8-1Upper Confidence Limits on Unit Risk to Humansfrom Lifetime Exposures to Vinyl Chloride.B-1Rate of Adduct Formation from Exposure of RhesusMonkeys to Vinyl Chloride.
1.0EXECUTIVE SUMMARYVinyl chloride is a short-chain halogenated hydrocarbon usedpredominantly in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride and various packagingand construction products. Vinyl chloride has a very low degree of acutetoxicity, with two-hour inhalation LD50 values ranging from 27,419 ppm in miceto 236,215 ppm in rabbits and guinea pigs. Exposure to high concentrationscan lead to narcosis, cardiovascular and respiratory irregularity,convulsions, cyanosis and death. Several human deaths have been attributed tooccupational exposure to very high levels of vinyl chloride. Autopsies ofthese patients revealed congestion of the liver, spleen and kidneys. Acutetoxicity symptoms are thought to occur above 100 ppm.Chronic exposure of workers to vinyl chloride has been shown to lead to"vinyl chloride disease", characterized by occupational acro-osteolysis,vasospasm of the hands similar to Raynaud's syndrome, dermatitis, circulatoryand central nervous system alterations, thrombocytopenia, splenomegaly andchanges in liver function.Eight symptoms commonly reported by workersexposed to vinyl chloride (including dizziness, headaches and nausea) wereobserved even at dose levels below 50 ppm.Vinyl chloride has been shown to induce cancer in animalsutero. buthas not been shown to cause any other reproductive or developmental effects inrats, mice and rabbits. Epidemiologic studies of families of vinyl chlorideworkers or communities having vinyl chloride processing facilities suggestedthe possibility of an increased incidence of birth defects and spontaneousabortions among people at risk; however, subsequent reviews of these studieshave concluded that there is inadequate evidence to link environmental orpaternal exoosure to vinvl chloride with birth defects or spontaneousabortions in humans.The noncarcinogenic effects occur at concentrations near or above 10ppm, which is greater than four orders of magnitude above possible generalambient levels in California (0.5 ppb).The noncarcinogenic effects alsooccur at concentrations greater than 3 orders of magnitude above the highestconcentrations measured near landfills (10 ppb).Consequently, DHS staff donot exoect noncarcinogenic adverse health effects to occur from acute orchronic exoosures to vinvl chloride in ambient air.The International Aeencv for Research on Cancer (IARC). the UnitedStates Environmental Protection Agencv (EPA) and the California De artmentofHealth Services ICDHS) have identified vinvl chloride as a chemical for whichthere is sufficient evidence of carcinoeenicitv in both humans andexoerimental animals. Chronic inhalation and oral exposures of rats, mice andhamsters to vinyl chloride have been associated with an increased incidence ofmalignant and benign tumors at several sites including the liver, lung,mammary gland and the nervous system. In humans, epidemiological studies ofoccupationally exposed workers have linked vinyl chloride exposure todevelopment of a rare cancer, liver angiosarcoma, and have suggested arelationship between exposure and lung and brain cancers.Although pharmacokinetic studies in humans exposed to vinyl chloride arerare, limited evidence indicates that, following inhalation of low levels of
vinyl chloride (3 to 24 ppm), up to 71% (with a mean value of 42%) of thegiven dose may be absorbed. Vinyl chloride absorption appears to depend onits metabolism, which is a dose-dependent, saturable process.Due tosaturation of the enzyme systems responsible for the metabolism of vinylchloride (cytochrome P-450 and alcohol dehydrogenase), exposure toconcentrations above approximately 250 ppm would not necessarily be expectedto lead to a perceptibly increasing incidence of tumor development.Metabolism of vinyl chloride leads to formation of chloroethylene oxide andchloroacetaldehyde, two reactive intermediates which undergo covalent bindingto cellular macromolecules and are thought to be responsible for the toxiceffects of vinyl chloride.These and other metabolites may be furthermetabolized and excreted in the urine.Unmetabolized vinyl chloride iseliminated primarily in exhaled air.Vinyl chloride is mutagenic in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic testsystems, with significantly greater genotoxicity seen after metabolicactivation. DHS staff have found no evidence of a carcinopenic threshold;a threshold for carcinoeenicitv.Several studies of carcinogenicity of vinyl chloride in animals and inoccupationally exposed workers have been analyzed for risk assessmentpurposes. The lowest lifetime equivalent concentration associated with anincreased incidence of tumors in laboratory animals is 0.06 ppm or 6 to 60fold above potential human exposure concentrations. Although measurements ofactual exposure levels are not available for vinyl chloride, worker exposureestimates have been used to evaluate the Waxweiler et al. (1976) study. Basedon these estimates, the present analysis calculates that the 95% upperconfidence limit (UCL) on lifetime unit risk of contracting cancer from vinylchloride, assuming liver, brain and lung cancer are all related to vinylppb-l. In the case that only liver cancer 'schloride exposure, is 4.5 xassumed to be linked to exposure, the UCL on unit risk is 2.5 xppb - .These predictions are uncertain due to inadequate exposure data, follow-uptime and other methodological problems. Evaluation of animal experiments bythe linearized multistage model yields redictions of UCLs on unit risks forhumans to be in the range of 3.7 xto 20 xppb-l. Evaluation ofanimal tumorigenicity data indicates that vinyl chloride's carcinogenicpotency is dependent on sex, tumor site and age of exposure. Taking all thesefactors into account, DHS staff conclude that the best estimate to use inorder to assure the public health is the top of the range of animal UCLs ofppb-l. The overall range of UCL on unit risk suitableunit risk, 20 xfor regulatory purposes is 2.5 xto 20 xppb -7 . Vinyl chloride has not been detected in the ambient air of California(limit of detection0.5 ppb) except at certain "hot spots". Air ResourcesBoard (ARB) staff has monitored vinyl chloride emissions from the BKKhazardous waste site in West Covina and the 011 landfill in Monterey Park.Estimates of peak exposure concentrations for maximally exposed receptorsrange from 2 to 10 ppb at the BKK landfill and from 0.6 to 9 ppb at the 011site. Air Resources Board staff has estimated that between 17,000 and 131,000individuals may be exposed to 1 ppb at the BKK site. The model predicts thatthe 95% upper confidence limit on cancers due to lifetime exposure of 131,000residents to 1 ppb would be in the range of 3 to 36. Based on the finding ofvinyl chloride-induced carcinogenicity and the results of the risk assessment,-
DHS staff finds that vinvl chloride is an air oollutant which mav cause orcontribute to an increase in mortalitv or an increase in serious illness. oywhich mav Dose a Dresent or ootential hazard to human health,1.1Vinvl Chloride Hi hliehtsI.National and International Evaluation (Other Agencies' Evaluation)A.International Aeencv for Research on Cancer (IARCZ1.B.C.11.Short-Term Tests:exists. both withactivation svstem,andwithout anexoeenous metabolic2.Animal carcinogenicity bioassays:Sufficient evidence ofanimal carcinoeenicitv bv oral administration or inhalationexists,3.Human evidence: Sufficient evidence of carcinoeenicitv tohumans exists, Occupational exposure to vinyl chloride hasbeen linked with development of angiosarcoma of the liver,and has been associated with tumors of the brain and lungand of the hematopoietic and lymphatic systems.D nylchloride is erouoed under IARC cateeorv 1. meanine that itis causallv associated with cancer in humans.U.S. Environmental Protection Aeencv (EPA)1.Short-Term Tests: Sufficient evidence of mutagenic activitvexists. both with and without an exogenous metabolicactivation svstem, for both DNA damage and mutation.2.Animal carcinogenicity bioassays:Sufficient evidence ofanimal carcinoeenicitv bv administration orally or byinhalation exists,3.Human data: A number of e idemioloeicalstudies have linkedvinvl chloride with anviosarcoma and other forms ofneo lasms. Sufficient evidence exists to indicate thatvinvl chloride is a human carcinoeen bv inhalation,Conclusions; Both EPA and IARC have concluded there is ampleevidence that vinyl chloride is genotoxic and is carcinogenic inboth animals and humans.Exposure SourcesA.Air Levels1.Throughout 1987 the South Coast Air Quality MaintenanceDistrict monitored near two landfill sites in the LosAngeles area. The highest annual average obtained at any ofthree stations near the BKK site was 2.6 ppb, and the
highest annual average at any of three stations near the 011site was 2.0 ppb.A.B.Ranee of Extra olatiop: Animal to human exposures in air forcalculated lifetime daily exposure.1.Experimental to ambient: Vinyl chloride hasdetected in ambient air, except at "hot spots".2.Experimental to "hot spots": The lowest exposures in theanimal studies are approximately 10- to 20-fold higher thanthe highest residential exposures.notbeenRanae of Risks;The human risks associated with the equivalent of a continuous, lifetimeexposure to vinyl chloride have been estimated using the linearized multistagemodel from both animal carcinogenicity bioassays and epidemiological studiesof exposed workers. The current DHS analysis obtained UCLs on unit risks forhumans es imated from animal data in the range from 3.7 xppb-l to 20. x p b -, depending on experimental exposure levels, tumor type observed,and sex, species, and age of ani a1 evaluated. The DHS analysis also obtaineda UCL on unit risk of 4.5 x lo-' for liver, lung, and brain cancer and 2.5 x10-5 for liver cancer only from an occupational study.E
2.0METABOLISM AND PHARMACOKINETICS2.1SummaryExperimental evidence has suggested that vinyl chloride must undergotransformation to a reactive metabolite(s) by the liver to be toxic. Based onthis information, the best dose-response data would consider the amount ofvinyl chloride actually absorbed and metabolized rather than the reportedexposure or administered dose concentrations. Reports of the vinyl chloridemetabolism in humans are sparse, but limited evidence indicates that, afterinhalation exposure to low concentrations, up to 71% (average42%) of agiven dose was absorbed (Krajewski et al., 1980). Based on this study it isassumed that 71% of an inhaled vinyl chloride exposure may be absorbed byhumans at ambient concentrations. Unmetabolized vinyl chloride is eliminatedprimarily via the lungs. Unlike the results in other species, the percentabsorption of vinyl chloride at the concentrations tested in humans did notdepend upon concentration.Data from rodent studies suggest that theabsorption of vinyl chloride depends on its rate of metabolism and the extentof metabolic saturation. The metabolic pathways of vinyl chloride exhibitsubstantial satuation at exposure concentrations above 100 ppm in the monkeysand above 200 ppm in rats.-Metabolism of vinyl chloride involves the cytochrome P-450 mixedfunction oxidase system. The first step is thought to be epoxidation of thedouble bond to form the reactive epoxide chloroethylene oxide, which mayundergo a number of further reactions, including binding to cellularmacromolecules. Intramolecular rearrangement of the chlorine atom may alsooccur, resulting in the formation of chloroacetaldehyde, another reactiveintermediate. In addition, alcohol dehydrogenase has a role in vinyl chloridebiotransformation, because inhibitors of this enzyme can significantly reducethe amount of vinyl chloride metabolized. Section 2.3 of this report providesa detailed discussion of vinyl chloride metabolism.2.2Absor tion.Distribution and Excretion2.2.1 InhalationThe pharmacokinetics of vinyl chloride following inhalation has beenstudied in five species of experimental animals. The uptake of vinyl chlorideat higher doses appears to depend on its metabolism. The metabolic breakdownof vinyl chloride in rats and monkeys (and perhaps in other species) is adose-dependent, saturable process (Buchter et al., 1980, Filser and Bolt,1979).Substantial species differences have been observed in the rates ofvinyl chloride clearance, with first-order metabolic clearance rates (inliters/hour/kg body weight) for the elimination of vinyl chloride decreasingin the order of mouse (25.6) gerbil (12.5) Wistar rat (11.0) Rhesusmonkey (3.55) rabbit (2.74) human (2.02) (Buchter et al., 1980).Results from inhalation exposure studies in humans, monkeys, and ratsusing direct and indirect test methods indicate that vinyl chloride is rapidlyabsorbed and metabolized, quickly distributed throughout the body, andexcreted by the kidneys. Unmetabolized vinyl chloride is expired by the lungsand, to a limited extent, expelled in the feces.
Several limited studies have been conducted in humans measuring vinylchloride absorption following inhalation exposure. Krajewski et al. (1980)observed that five male volunteers exposed to 3 , 6 , 12, or 24 ppm vinylchloride for six hours by a "face only" chamber absorbed an average of 42% ofthe dose regardless of concentration. Large interindividual variation in thedegree of vinyl chloride retention was observed, with one individual retaining71% of the dose at the time exposure was terminated; no other individualretained greater than 45%.This finding indicates a large range ofinterindividual variability. Concentration of vinyl chloride in expired air,measured for 90 minutes after cessation of exposure, decreased to negligibleamounts after only 30 minutes post-exposure. The quantity of unmetabolizedvinyl chloride exhaled was considered negligible and constituted roughly 4% ofthe inhalation concentration of vinyl chloride to which subjects were exposed(Krajewski et al., 1980). Thus, humans metabolized up to 96% of the absorbedvinyl chloride dose.Buchter et al. (1978) reported that humans exposed to 2.5 ppm vinylchloride retained 26-28% of the administered dose (Krajewski et al., 1980).Substantial interindividual differences were reported in this study. Thesedifferences appear due to differences in the adipose tissue mass amongindividuals, although this hypothesis has not been confirmed in follow-upstudies (Buchter, 1979; Buchter et al., 1978; Bolt et al., 1981).Pulmonary absorption of vinyl chloride by rats occurs rapidly. Bloodlevels of vinyl chloride increase with the dose. Blood concentrations quicklydecline after cessation of exposure; unmetabolized vinyl chloride is exhaled(Withey, 1976; Hefner et al., 1975a; 1975b; 1975 ).Evidence from both whole animal and "nose-only" inhalation studies inrats indicates that the rate of pulmonary uptake of vinyl chloride in a closedsystem is partially dependent on the extent of metabolism (Bolt et al., 1977;In the "nose-only" exposureHefner et al., 1975a; 1975b; Withey, 1976).system used by Hefner et al. (1975a), pretreatment of rats with eitherpyrazole or 95% ethanol significantly reduced both the uptake (as calculatedfrom the disappearance of vinyl chloride from the exposure chamber) andmetabolism of vinyl chloride. This held true for both exposure levels.Pyrazole- pretreated rats were exposed to either 65 or 1234 ppm, whileethanol-pretreated rats were exposed to 56 or 1034 ppm.Several groups of investigators have presented additional dataconcerning the uptake, metabolism and disposition of vinyl chloride followinginhalation exposure (Bolt et al., 1976; 1977; Hefner et al., 1975a; 1975b;Buchter et al., 1977).In an investigation into the disposition of vinylchloride, Bolt and co-workers (1976) e posed male Wistar rats to initial1 'labeled vinyl chloride (apparentconcentrations of "less than 100 ppm8' 2range 1-50 ppm) in a closed system for six hours. The half-life for vinylchloride disappearance from the chamber was about 68 minutes.From thisstudy, the authors estimated that approximately 40% of the inspired vinylchloride was absorbed by the lungs (Bolt et al. 1976). Pulmonary uptake ofvinyl chloride by rats was completely blocked following pretreatment with thecytochrome P-450 inhibitors 6-nitro-1,2,3-benzothiadiazole or 3-bromophenyl4(5)-imidazole (Bolt et al., 1976). Uptake of vinyl chloride appeared to belinked to its metabolism, since 24 hours after pretreatment with therelatively short-lived P-450 inhibitor 3-bromophenyl-4(5)-imidazole the uptake
of vinyl chloride had returned to control levels. Following exposure, theliver and kidney contained the highest levels of vinyl chloride metabolites(Bolt et al., 1976).In an attempt to determine the exact minimalconcentration of vinyl chloride in air necessary to achieve metabolicsaturation, Bolt et al. (1977) exposed groups of rats to a wide range of vinylchloride concentrations and showed that saturation occurred at 250 ppm.First-order kinetics occurred at exposures less than 250 ppm, while zero-orderkinetics predominated at higher exposures.Hefner and colleagues (1975a; 1975b) exposed male Sprague-Dawley rats toinitial vinyl chloride concentrations ranging from 50 to 1,167 ppm in a closednose-only inhalation system. The rate of uptake of vinyl chloride by theanimals (as calculated from the rate of disappearance of vinyl chloride fromthe chamber atmosphere) was approximately three times greater for doses lessthan 105 ppm (range 50 to 105 ppm) than for doses greater than 220 ppm (range220 to 1,167 ppm).After an initial equilibration period and regardless ofthe administered concentration, vinyl chloride disappearance from the chamberapparently followed first- order kinetics. The half-life for atmosphericvinyl chloride at concentrations below 100 ppm was 86 minutes compared with261 minutes for concentrations greater than 220 ppm. Hefner et al. (1975b)concluded that the predominant pathway for metabolism of vinyl chloride byrats exposed to 100 ppm or less is saturable and that this metabolism wasinhibited by pyrazole and ethanol.Studies in rats and monkeys suggest that, after absorption, vinylchloride is rapidly distributed to all tissues reached by the bloodstream(Duprat et al., 1977; Buchter et al., 1980). Lipids or lipoproteins, ratherthan proteins, transport vinyl c loride in the blood (Bolt et al., 1977).Studies of the distribution of C - l a b e l e d vinyl chloride in rats indicatedthat, immediately after inhalation administration, the liver (predominant siteof metabolism) and the kidneys (site of excretion of polar metabolites)contained the highest concentrations of 14c activity, followed by lungs,spleen, a d small intestine (Watanabe et al., 1976a; Bolt et al., 1976).However, r4C counts quickly decreased after cessation of exposure. In onestudy, vinyl chloride metabolite concentrations decreased significantly inthese tissues 48 hours after a single inhalation exposure (50 ppm for fivehours) compared to measurements made immediately after exposure ended (Bolt etal., 1976).Watanabe and co-workers (1976a) also examined the fate of 14 -vinylchloride following inhalation exposure in rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats wereexposed to 10 or 1,000 ppm vinyl chloride in whole-body metabolism cages forsix hours and were observed for an additional 72 hours. After exposure to 10ppm vinyl chloride, urinary radioactivity accounted for 68%, expired vinylchloride for 2%, expired C02 for 12%, feces for 4%, and carcass and tissuesfor 14%, respectively, of the recovered radioactivity. After exposure to1,000 ppm, urinary radioactivity accounted for 56%, expired vinyl chloride for12%, expired C02 for 12%, feces for 4%, and carcass and tissues for 15% of therecovered radioactivity.The patterns of pulmonary elimination ofunmetabolized vinyl chloride following exposure to 10 or 1,000 ppm weresimilar and could be described by first-order kinetics, with half-lives of20.4 and 22.4 minutes, respectively. A corresponding biphasic elimination ofurinary radioactivity following inhalation exposure to 10 or 1,000 ppm vinylchloride was observed: the half-lives for the initial phase were 276 and 246
minutes, respectively.The liver and skin contained the highestconcentrations of radioactivity 72 hours after exposure to either dose. Theauthors concluded a t since "the rate of elimination of vinyl chloride per sefrom the lungs orC activity in the urine was not different in rats exposedto 10 or 1000 pprn," the dose-dependent fate (the relative amount of vinylchloride excreted by the two different routes) was not attributable tosaturation of the excretion pathways. The results are in agreement with thehypothesis that the metabolism of vinyl chloride becomes saturated at highexposure levels (Watanabe et al., 1976a).Gehring et al. (1978) have investigated the extent to which themetabolism of vinyl chloride in rats quanitatively follows Michaelis-Mentenkinetics. Over the exposure range of 1.4 to 4600 ppm for six hours the datafollow approximately the Michaelis-Menten equation with:-- 8558 1147 (SD) pg/6 hr, maximum velocity;860 159 (SD) pg/liter (336 2 62 (SD) ppm),R - 0.88, correlation coefficient.VmKmsaturation constant;The pharmacokinetics of inhaled vinyl chloride in a closed system hasalso been examined in Rhesus monkeys (Buchter et al., 1980). Uptake of vinylchloride appeared to depend on its metabolism and to be a dose-dependent,saturable process. When monkeys were exposed to concentrations up to 200-300ppm in a closed system, vinyl chloride disappearance from the chamber followedapparent first-order kinetics. At higher exposure levels (up to 800 ppm),zero-order kinetics were observed, implying metabolic saturation. The firstorder clearance rate was 3.55 liters/hour/kg. The clearance rate fell by 90%after pretreatment with the aldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitor, disulfiram(Buchter et al., 1980).Gargas et al. (1986, 1988) have used gas uptake data to determine thekinetic constants of vinyl chloride and other organic gases in the F-344 malerat. The results for vinyl chloride are Vmax 40 pmol/h, near previousvalues ;Km0.1 mg/l blood, lower than previous values by 10-fold; andblood-air partition coefficient 2.68, near recent determinations. See alsoChen and Blancato (1989).--Liver microsomal enzyme activities and macromolecular covalent bindingin rats following either single or repeated exposures to vinyl chloride werecompared by Watanabe et al. (1978a).One group of rats was exposed byinhalation to 5,000 ppm nonlabeled vinyl chloride 6 hours/day, 5 days/week for1 weeks, and then exposed to carbon-labeled vinyl chloride on the last day.The fate of the labeled vinyl chloride from these rats was compared with aseparate group exposed for a single 6-hour period to 5,000 ppm of labeledvinyl chloride. The activities of aniline hydroxylase and p-nitroanisole 0demethylase were the same in rats exposed once or repeatedly or in unexposedcontrol rats. Covalent binding to hepatic macromolecules was greater in ratsrepeatedly exposed as compared to those given a single exposure. Watanabe etal. (1978a) concluded that this "increase in hepatic macromolecular bindingindicates that repeated exposure augments the reaction of electrophilicmetabolites with macromolecules, and this may be expected to enhance potentialtoxicity, including carcinogenicity". Chronic exposure (28,000 ppm, sevenhours/day, five days/week for 2, 4 or 6 weeks) wqs found to increaseglutathione reductase activity, glutathione-S-epoxide transferase activity,.
glutathione-S-aralkyl transferase activities, and glutathione levels in ratliver and to depress cytochrome P-450 levels (Du et al., 1982). This suggeststhat a reactive metabolite of vinyl chloride can destroy cytochrome P-450 anddisrupt several enzyme
vinyl chloride (3 to 24 ppm), up to 71% (with a mean value of 42%) of the given dose may be absorbed. Vinyl chloride absorption appears to depend on its metabolism, which is a dose-dependent, saturable process. Due to saturation of the enzyme systems responsible for the metabolism of vinyl chloride (cytochrome P-450 and alcohol dehydrogenase .
Copper(II) chloride dihydrate, manganese(II) chloride dihy-drate, nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate, iron(III) chloride tetrahydrate, lithium chloride, and sodium chloride were supplied by Boom BV. Dysprosium(III) chloride, zinc(II) chloride, cobalt chloride hexahydrate, indium(III) chloride, and magnesium chloride were supplied by Sigma-Aldrich .
REPEATED EXPOSURE. MAY BE IRRITATING TO EYES. POLYVINYL CHLORIDE CONTAINS VINYL CHLORIDE. VINYL CHLORIDE IS A CANCER-SUSPECT AGENT. THIS PRODUCT CONTAINS VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER (VCM) AT CONCENTRATIONS OF 10 PPM OR LESS ( 0.001%). PHYSICAL HAZARDS: Use methods to minimize generation of dust. PVC dust is capable of propagating a secondary dust .
Vinyl Chloride 15/02/99 8 6.3. Emissions The main route by which vinyl chloride enters the environment during manufacturing, processing and usage is the atmosphere. Emissions into air from the use of vinyl chloride can be estimated based on current national regulations and the BAT recommendations as 448 t/y for the S.PVC production in Europe.
Vinyl Siding Institute -"Vinyl Siding Installation Manual", dated Oct 2004. Vinyl Siding Industry Standards . Current testing requirements for the vinyl siding industry are per ASTM D3679, Standard Specification for Rigid Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Siding. This standard specification has a maximum test level of 120 F.
manufacturing or processing plants, which release it into the air or into waste water. EPA limits the amount that industries can release. Vinyl chloride . people get a headache when they breathe fresh air immediately after breathing very high levels of vinyl chloride. People who breathe ext
1 mg/kg and that the vinyl chloride content in food products should be below 10 µg/kg[8]. More recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) set a maximum residue level of 300 ng/L (0.3 ppb) vinyl chloride in drinking water[2]. As vinyl chloride is gaseous at ambient conditions, the analytical technique of choice is gas chromatography (GC).
Solubility of n-butane in vinyl chloride monomer. soo C; 0:600 C. Temperature dependence of Henry's Law constant for n-butane in vinyl chloride monomer. Temperature dependence of apparent solubility constant for n-butane in PVC. Ratio of GC detector response areas for n-butane versus conversion of VCM at 600 C. e:experimental data; :model .
Anatomy is the study of the structure of living things. b. Physiology is the science of the functioning of living organisms and their component parts. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 i. Factors that determine divisions in anatomy are: a. Degree of structural detail under consideration 5. HEM 604 BASIC ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN BODY b. Specific processes c. Medical application ii. The analysis .
